title: Sophora flavescens Ait.: Traditional usage, phytochemistry and pharmacology of an important traditional Chinese medicine.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Sophora flavescens (Fabaceae), also known as Kushen (Chinese: ), has been an important species in Chinese medicine since the Qin and Han dynasties. The root of Sophora flavescens has a long history in the traditional medicine of many countries, including China, Japan, Korea, India and some countries in Europe. In traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), Sophora flavescens has been used extensively, mainly in combination with other medicinal plants in prescriptions to treat fever, dysentery, hematochezia, jaundice, oliguria, vulvar swelling, asthma, eczema, inflammatory disorders, ulcers and diseases associated with skin burns. The aim of this review is to provide updated and comprehensive information regarding the botany, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, biological activities and toxicology of Sophora flavescens and to discuss possible trends and opportunities for further research on Sophora flavescens.
  
  
  METHODS
  We systematically searched major scientific databases (PubMed, Elsevier, SpringerLink, Google Scholar, Medline Plus, ACS, "Da Yi Yi Xue Sou Suo (http://www.dayi100.com/login.jsp)", China Knowledge Resource Integrated (CNKI) and Web of Science) for information published between 1958 and 2015 on Sophora flavescens. Information was also acquired from local classic herbal literature, conference papers, government reports, and PhD and MSc dissertations.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The broad spectrum of biological activities associated with Sophora flavescens has been considered a valuable resource in both traditional and modern medicine. Extracts are taken either orally or by injection. More than 200 compounds have been isolated from Sophora flavescens, and the major components have been identified as flavonoids and alkaloids. Recent in vitro and in vivo studies indicate that at least 50 pure compounds and crude extracts from Sophora flavescens possess wide-ranging antitumor, antimicrobial, antipyretic, antinociceptive, and anti-inflammatory pharmacological abilities. The anticancer and anti-infection abilities of these components are especially attractive areas for research.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Sophora flavescens is a promising traditional medicine, but there is a need for more precise studies to test the safety and clinical value of its main active crude extracts and pure compounds and to clarify their mechanisms of action. Moreover, some existing studies have lacked systematic methods and integration with the existing literature, and some of the experiments were isolated, used small sample sizes and were unreliable. More validated data are therefore required.
authors.affiliation: Hong-Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University College of Medicine, Xi'an 710054, PR China; The College of Life Sciences, Northwestern University, Xi'an 710069, PR China. Electronic address: xiruihe6105194@163.com.
authors.forename: Xirui
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: He
authors.affiliation: The College of Life Sciences, Northwestern University, Xi'an 710069, PR China.
authors.forename: Jiacheng
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Fang
authors.affiliation: Hong-Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University College of Medicine, Xi'an 710054, PR China. Electronic address: hxrhist@163.com.
authors.forename: Linhong
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Huang
authors.affiliation: Department of Pharmacy, University Hospital of Gansu Traditional Medicine, Lanzhou 730020, PR China.
authors.forename: Jinhui
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Wang
authors.affiliation: Hong-Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University College of Medicine, Xi'an 710054, PR China.
authors.forename: Xiaoqiang
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Huang
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D004365:Drugs, Chinese Herbal / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000737:chemistry / Q000494:pharmacology* / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D020834:Ethnopharmacology; D006801:Humans; D010936:Plant Extracts / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000494:pharmacology / Q000627:therapeutic use
chemical_list: D004365:Drugs, Chinese Herbal; D010936:Plant Extracts; C494416:kushen
keywords: Alkaloids; Antimicrobial activity; Antitumor activity; Ethnopharmacology; Flavonoids; Sophora flavescens