title: Spatial radial maze procedures and setups to dissociate local and distal relational spatial frameworks in humans.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Radial maze tasks have been used to assess optimal foraging and spatial abilities in rodents. The spatial performance was based on a capacity to rely on a configuration of local and distant cues. We adapted maze procedures assessing the relative weight of local cues and distant landmarks for arm choice in humans.
  
  
  METHODS
  The procedure allowed testing memory of places in four experimental setups: a fingertip texture-groove maze, a tactile screen maze, a virtual radial maze and a walking size maze. During training, the four reinforced positions remained fixed relative to local and distal cues. During subsequent conflict trials, these frameworks were made conflictive in the prediction of reward locations.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Three experiments showed that the relative weight of local and distal relational cues is affected by different factors such as cues' nature, visual access to the environment, real vs. virtual environment, and gender. A fourth experiment illustrated how a walking maze can be used with people suffering intellectual disability.
  
  
  METHODS
  In our procedure, long-term (reference) and short-term (working) memory can be assessed. It is the first radial task adapted to human that enables dissociating local and distal cues, to provides an indication as to their relative salience. Our mazes are moveable and easily used in limited spaces. Tasks are performed with realistic and spontaneous though controlled exploratory movements.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our tasks enabled highlighting the use of different strategies. In a clinical perspective, considering the use of compensatory strategies should orient towards adapted behavioural rehabilitation.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Psychology, University of Lausanne, CH-1005 Lausanne, Switzerland; Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, Lausanne University, Hospital, CH-1008 Prilly, Switzerland. Electronic address: Lea.Bertholet@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Léa
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Bertholet
authors.affiliation: Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, Lausanne University, Hospital, CH-1008 Prilly, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Manuel Torres
authors.initials: MT
authors.lastname: Escobar
authors.affiliation: Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay, UMR 9197/CNRS, Département Cognition & Comportement, Université Paris-Sud, Orsay F-91405, France.
authors.forename: Marion
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Depré
authors.affiliation: Institute of Psychology, University of Lausanne, CH-1005 Lausanne, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Camille F
authors.initials: CF
authors.lastname: Chavan
authors.affiliation: Consultation of Liaison Psychiatry for Intellectual Disability, Community Psychiatry Service, Department of Psychiatry, University Hospital Center and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Fabienne
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Giuliani
authors.affiliation: Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay, UMR 9197/CNRS, Département Cognition & Comportement, Université Paris-Sud, Orsay F-91405, France.
authors.forename: Pascale
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Gisquet-Verrier
authors.affiliation: Institute of Psychology, University of Lausanne, CH-1005 Lausanne, Switzerland; Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, Lausanne University, Hospital, CH-1008 Prilly, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Delphine
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Preissmann
authors.affiliation: Institute of Psychology, University of Lausanne, CH-1005 Lausanne, Switzerland; Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, Lausanne University, Hospital, CH-1008 Prilly, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Françoise
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Schenk
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000704:Analysis of Variance; D003463:Cues; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D018782:Maze Learning / Q000502:physiology*; D009949:Orientation / Q000502:physiology*; D013028:Space Perception / Q000502:physiology*; D065852:Spatial Memory / Q000502:physiology*; D014584:User-Computer Interface; D055815:Young Adult
keywords: Gender; Intellectual disabilities; Radial maze; Real environment; Reference frame; Spatial learning