title: Imitate or innovate? Children's innovation is influenced by the efficacy of observed behaviour.
abstract: This study investigated the age at which children judge it futile to imitate unreliable information, in the form of a visibly ineffective demonstrated solution, and deviate to produce novel solutions ('innovations'). Children aged 4-9 years were presented with a novel puzzle box, the Multiple-Methods Box (MMB), which offered multiple innovation opportunities to extract a reward using different tools, access points and exits. 209 children were assigned to conditions in which eight social demonstrations of a reward retrieval method were provided; each condition differed incrementally in terms of the method's efficacy (0%, 25%, 75%, and 100% success at extracting the reward). An additional 47 children were assigned to a no-demonstration control condition. Innovative reward extractions from the MMB increased with decreasing efficacy of the demonstrated method. However, imitation remained a widely used strategy irrespective of the efficacy of the method being reproduced (90% of children produced at least one imitative attempt, and imitated on an average of 4.9 out of 8 attempt trials). Children were more likely to innovate in relation to the tool than exit, even though the latter would have been more effective. Overall, innovation was rare: only 12.4% of children innovated by discovering at least one novel reward exit. Children's prioritisation of social information is consistent with theories of cultural evolution indicating imitation is a prepotent response following observation of behaviour, and that innovation is a rarity; so much so, that even maladaptive behaviour is copied.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, Centre for the Coevolution of Biology and Culture, Durham University, UK. Electronic address: kayleigh.carr@durham.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Kayleigh
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Carr
authors.affiliation: Department of Anthropology, Centre for the Coevolution of Biology and Culture, Durham University, UK. Electronic address: rachel.kendal@durham.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Rachel L
authors.initials: RL
authors.lastname: Kendal
authors.affiliation: School of Education, Centre for the Coevolution of Biology and Culture, Durham University, UK. Electronic address: e.g.flynn@durham.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Emma G
authors.initials: EG
authors.lastname: Flynn
mesh_terms: D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007100:Imitative Behavior; D008297:Male; D011340:Problem Solving; D002666:Psychology, Child; D012201:Reward; D000067570:Social Learning
keywords: Asocial learning; Behaviour efficacy; Imitation; Innovation; Selective social learning; Trade-offs