title: Cardiovascular risk factors in rural Kenyans are associated with differential age gradients, but not modified by sex or ethnicity.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The relationship between metabolic disease and the non-modifiable risk factors sex, age and ethnicity in Africans is not well-established.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  This study aimed to describe sex, age and ethnicity differences in blood pressure (BP) and lipid status in rural Kenyans.
  
  
  METHODS
  A cross-sectional study was undertaken among rural Kenyans. BP and pulse rate (PR) were measured while sitting and fasting blood samples were taken for analysis of standard lipid profile. Standard anthropometric measurements were collected. Physical activity energy expenditure was obtained objectively and lifestyle data were obtained using questionnaires.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In total, 1139 individuals (61.0% women) participated aged 17-68 years. Age was positively associated with BP and plasma cholesterol levels. Sitting PR was negatively associated with age in women only (sex-interaction p < 0.001). Ethnicity did not modify any of the age-associations with haemodynamic or lipid outcomes. Differences in intercept between women and men were found in all parameters except for diastolic BP (p = 0.154), with men having lower HDL-C but higher values in all other cardiovascular risk factors.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  BP and plasma cholesterol levels increase with age at a similar gradient in men and women, but absolute levels of the majority of the risk factors were higher in men.
authors.affiliation: a Department of Public Health , University of Copenhagen , Copenhagen , Denmark .|b Steno Diabetes Center , Gentofte , Denmark .
authors.forename: Dirk L
authors.initials: DL
authors.lastname: Christensen
authors.affiliation: c Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports , University of Copenhagen , Frederiksberg , Denmark .|d Department of Infectious Diseases , National University Hospital (Rigshospitalet) , Copenhagen , Denmark .
authors.forename: Daniel
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Faurholt-Jepsen
authors.affiliation: a Department of Public Health , University of Copenhagen , Copenhagen , Denmark .
authors.forename: Louise
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Birkegaard
authors.affiliation: e KEMRI , Nairobi , Kenya .
authors.forename: David L
authors.initials: DL
authors.lastname: Mwaniki
authors.affiliation: f Department of Recreation Management and Exercise Science , Kenyatta University , Nairobi , Kenya .
authors.forename: Michael K
authors.initials: MK
authors.lastname: Boit
authors.affiliation: e KEMRI , Nairobi , Kenya .
authors.forename: Beatrice
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Kilonzo
authors.affiliation: g Medical Research Council Epidemiology Unit, University of Cambridge , Cambridge , UK .
authors.forename: Søren
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Brage
authors.affiliation: c Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports , University of Copenhagen , Frederiksberg , Denmark .
authors.forename: Henrik
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Friis
authors.affiliation: h National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark , Søborg , Denmark , and.
authors.forename: Inge
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Tetens
authors.affiliation: i Holbæk Hospital , Holbæk , Denmark.
authors.forename: Knut
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Borch-Johnsen
authors.affiliation: b Steno Diabetes Center , Gentofte , Denmark .
authors.forename: Dorte
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Vistisen
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000367:Age Factors; D000368:Aged; D000428:Alcohol Drinking; D000886:Anthropometry; D001794:Blood Pressure; D002318:Cardiovascular Diseases / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000453:epidemiology*; D002784:Cholesterol / Q000097:blood; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D005006:Ethnicity; D005260:Female; D006339:Heart Rate; D006439:Hemodynamics; D006801:Humans; D007630:Kenya; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D011674:Pulse; D012307:Risk Factors; D012424:Rural Population; D012737:Sex Factors; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D002784:Cholesterol
keywords: Dyslipidaemia; hypertension; sub-Saharan Africa