title: Stress-induced DNA damage biomarkers: applications and limitations.
abstract: A variety of environmental stresses like chemicals, UV and ionizing radiation and organism's endogenous processes such as replication stress and metabolism can lead to the generation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) that can attack cellular vital components like DNA, proteins and lipid membranes. Among them, much attention has been focused on DNA since DNA damage plays a role in several biological disorders and aging processes. Thus, DNA damage can be used as a biomarker in a reliable and accurate way to quantify for example radiation exposure and can indicate its possible long term effects and cancer risk. Based on the type of DNA lesions detected one can hypothesize on the most probable mechanisms involved in the formation of these lesions for example in the case of UV and ionizing radiation (e.g., X- or α-, γ-rays, energetic ions, neutrons). In this review we describe the most accepted chemical pathways for DNA damage induction and the different types of DNA lesions, i.e., single, complex DNA lesions etc. that can be used as DNA damage biomarkers. We critically compare DNA damage detection methods and their limitations. In addition, we suggest the use of DNA repair gene products as biomarkes for identification of different types of stresses i.e., radiation, oxidative, or replication stress, based on bioinformatic approaches and meta-analysis of literature data.
authors.affiliation: DNA Damage and Repair Laboratory, Physics Department, School of Applied Mathematical and Physical Sciences, National Technical University of Athens Athens, Greece.
authors.forename: Zacharenia
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Nikitaki
authors.affiliation: Radiation Biology Department, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Aerospace Medicine Köln, Germany.
authors.forename: Christine E
authors.initials: CE
authors.lastname: Hellweg
authors.affiliation: DNA Damage and Repair Laboratory, Physics Department, School of Applied Mathematical and Physical Sciences, National Technical University of Athens Athens, Greece.
authors.forename: Alexandros G
authors.initials: AG
authors.lastname: Georgakilas
authors.affiliation: Laboratoire des Lésions des Acides Nucléiques, Institut des Nanosciences et Cryogénie, Service de Chimie Inorgranique et Biologique, Université Grenoble Alpes Grenoble, France ; CEA, Institut des Nanosciences et Cryogénie, Service de Chimie Inorgranique et Biologique Grenoble, France.
authors.forename: Jean-Luc
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Ravanat
keywords: DNA damage; UV radiation; biomarkers; clustered DNA lesions; ionizing radiation; oxidative stress