title: Anatomical landmarks of the lateral nasal wall: implications for endonasal lacrimal surgery.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  An accurate understanding of the anatomy of the lateral nasal wall is key to achieving complete exposure of the lacrimal sac during endonasal dacryocystorhinostomy (EnDCR) and the avoidance of complications such as basal skull fracture and orbital fat prolapse. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the clinical and cadaveric anatomical studies of the lateral nasal wall to date and their application to endonasal lacrimal surgery.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The maxillary line and the axilla of the middle turbinate are the major landmarks commonly utilized by lacrimal surgeons to localize the lacrimal sac. Numerous clinical, cadaveric and radiologic studies have attempted to define the relationship of these and other important anatomical landmarks, closely related to the lacrimal sac and routinely encountered during endonasal surgery, such as the frontal process of the maxilla, the agger nasi air cell and the uncinate process. A greater understanding of the relevant endonasal anatomy over time has led to safer and more effective surgical techniques.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Greater insights into the precise anatomical relationship of the lacrimal sac to other structures on the lateral nasal wall has enabled lacrimal surgeons to perform EnDCR surgery in a more accurate, efficient and well tolerated manner, matching its success to that of the external approach.
authors.affiliation: aAdnexal Service, Moorfields Eye Hospital, London, United Kingdom bDepartment of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, South Australian Institute of Ophthalmology, Adelaide University, Adelaide, South Australia cDepartment of Surgery-Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia.
authors.forename: Pari N
authors.initials: PN
authors.lastname: Shams
authors.forename: Peter J
authors.initials: PJ
authors.lastname: Wormald
authors.forename: Dinesh
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Selva
mesh_terms: D006801:Humans; D007765:Lacrimal Apparatus / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000601:surgery*; D009296:Nasal Cavity; D009301:Nasolacrimal Duct / Q000601:surgery; D013508:Ophthalmologic Surgical Procedures / Q000009:adverse effects; D011183:Postoperative Complications