title: Microbial and chemical contamination of water, sediment and soil in the Nakivubo wetland area in Kampala, Uganda.
abstract: The reuse of domestic and industrial wastewater in urban settings of the developing world may harm the health of people through direct contact or via contaminated urban agricultural products and drinking water. We assessed chemical and microbial pollutants in 23 sentinel sites along the wastewater and faecal sludge management and reuse chain of Kampala, Uganda. Water samples were examined for bacteria (thermotolerant coliforms (TTCs), Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp.) and helminth eggs. Physico-chemical parameters were determined. Water, sediment and soil samples and edible plants (yams and sugar cane) were tested for heavy metals. Water samples derived from the Nakivubo wetland showed mean concentrations of TTCs of 2.9 × 10(5) colony-forming units (CFU)/100 mL. Mean E. coli was 9.9 × 10(4) CFU/100 mL. Hookworm eggs were found in 13.5% of the water samples. Mean concentrations of iron (Fe), copper (Cu) and cadmium (Cd) were 21.5, 3.3 and 0.14 mg/L, respectively. In soil samples, we found a mean lead (Pb) concentration of 132.7 mg/L. In yams, concentrations of Cd, chromium (Cr) and Pb were 4.4, 4.0 and 0.2 mg/L, while the respective concentrations in sugar cane were 8.4, 4.3 and 0.2 mg/L. TTCs and E. coli in the water, Pb in soil, and Cd, Cr and Pb in the plants were above national thresholds. We conclude that there is considerable environmental pollution in the Nakivubo wetland and the Lake Victoria ecosystem in Kampala. Our findings have important public health implications, and we suggest that a system of sentinel surveillance is being implemented that, in turn, can guide adequate responses.
authors.affiliation: Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, P.O. Box, CH-4002, Basel, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Samuel
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Fuhrimann
authors.forename: Michelle
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Stalder
authors.forename: Mirko S
authors.initials: MS
authors.lastname: Winkler
authors.forename: Charles B
authors.initials: CB
authors.lastname: Niwagaba
authors.forename: Mohammed
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Babu
authors.forename: Godfrey
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Masaba
authors.forename: Narcis B
authors.initials: NB
authors.lastname: Kabatereine
authors.forename: Abdullah A
authors.initials: AA
authors.lastname: Halage
authors.forename: Pierre H H
authors.initials: PH
authors.lastname: Schneeberger
authors.forename: Jürg
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Utzinger
authors.forename: Guéladio
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Cissé
mesh_terms: D000383:Agriculture; D000818:Animals; D002104:Cadmium / Q000032:analysis; D002857:Chromium / Q000032:analysis; D003300:Copper / Q000032:analysis; D027742:Dioscorea / Q000737:chemistry; D004784:Environmental Monitoring; D004785:Environmental Pollutants / Q000032:analysis*; D004926:Escherichia coli / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D019015:Geologic Sediments / Q000032:analysis; D006376:Helminths; D060106:Lakes; D019216:Metals, Heavy / Q000032:analysis*; D010063:Ovum; D010944:Plants / Q000737:chemistry; D031786:Saccharum / Q000737:chemistry; D012475:Salmonella / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D012987:Soil / Q000737:chemistry; D012989:Soil Pollutants / Q000032:analysis; D014454:Uganda; D062065:Wastewater; D014867:Water / Q000737:chemistry; D014871:Water Microbiology; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000032:analysis; D053833:Wetlands
chemical_list: D002104:Cadmium; D002857:Chromium; D003300:Copper; D004785:Environmental Pollutants; D019216:Metals, Heavy; D012987:Soil; D012989:Soil Pollutants; D062065:Wastewater; D014867:Water; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical