title: Risk factors associated with sacral stress fractures: a systematic review.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The objective of this study was to examine and identify risk factors associated with the development of sacral stress fractures in order to improve diagnosis in clinical practice.
  
  
  METHODS
  Electronic search strategies in PubMed, CINAHL, Scopus, and SPORTDiscus were combined with a hand search to identify articles for inclusion. Studies were considered if they described patient cases in which imaging confirmed diagnosis of a sacral stress fracture, and the diagnosis included whether the fracture was a sacral insufficiency or sacral fatigue stress fracture.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In those that developed sacral insufficiency fractures, the risk factors that were most prevalent included osteoporosis, pelvic radiation therapy, rheumatoid arthritis, long-term corticosteroid therapy, and postmenopausal, each with a prevalence of 100%. Risk factors with 100% prevalence in those diagnosed with sacral fatigue fractures included recent increase in training intensity and deficient diet.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  A pattern of signs and symptoms are consistent among subjects with sacral stress fractures. Patients being unsuccessfully treated for low-back and buttock pain who fit the risk factor profiles for sacral stress fractures should be referred to a physician for further diagnostic workup.
authors.affiliation: Department of Physical Therapy, Walsh University, North Canton, OH, USA.
authors.forename: Kristi
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Yoder
authors.affiliation: Department of Physical Therapy, Walsh University, North Canton, OH, USA.
authors.forename: Jenna
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Bartsokas
authors.affiliation: Department of Physical Therapy, Walsh University, North Canton, OH, USA.
authors.forename: Kristina
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Averell
authors.affiliation: Department of Physical Therapy, Walsh University, North Canton, OH, USA.
authors.forename: Erin
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: McBride
authors.affiliation: Department of Physical Therapy, Walsh University, North Canton, OH, USA.
authors.forename: Christine
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Long
authors.affiliation: Department of Physical Therapy, Walsh University, North Canton, OH, USA.
authors.forename: Chad
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Cook
keywords: Fatigue fracture; Insufficiency fracture; Risk factors; Sacral stress fracture