title: In-vivo brain neuroimaging provides a gateway for integrating biological and clinical biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Only 5% of the Alzheimer's cases are explained by genetic mutations, whereas the remaining 95% are sporadic. The pathophysiological mechanisms underlying sporadic Alzheimer's disease are not well understood, suggesting a complex multifactorial cause. This review summarizes the recent findings on research aiming to show how biomarkers can be used for revealing the underlying mechanisms of preclinical stage Alzheimer's disease and help in their diagnosis.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The undisputed successful publicly accessible repositories provide longitudinal brain images, clinical, genetic and proteomic information of Alzheimer's disease. By combining with increasingly sophisticated data analysis methods, it is a great opportunity for searching new biomarkers. Innovative studies validated theoretical models of disease progression demonstrating the sequential ordering of well-established biomarkers. Novel observations shed light on the interaction between biomarkers to confirm that disease progression is related to multiple pathological factors. A typical example is the tau-associated neuronal toxicity that can be additionally potentiated by amyloid β peptides. To increase further the complexity, studies report specific impact of common genetic variants that can be traced from childhood through middle age up to the symptomatic onset of Alzheimer's disease.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The discovery of efficient therapies to prevent the disease or modify the progression of disease requires a more thorough understanding of the underlying biological processes. Neuroimaging, genetic and proteomic biomarkers for Alzheimer's disease are critically discussed and proposed to be included in clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines.
authors.affiliation: aDepartment of Clinical Neurosciences, LREN, CHUV and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland bUniversity Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, CHUV, Lausanne, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Jing
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Cui
authors.forename: Valérie
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Zufferey
authors.forename: Ferath
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Kherif
mesh_terms: D000544:Alzheimer Disease / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000378:metabolism / Q000473:pathology; D016229:Amyloid beta-Peptides / Q000378:metabolism*; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000378:metabolism; D001921:Brain / Q000378:metabolism / Q000473:pathology*; D006801:Humans; D059906:Neuroimaging / Q000379:methods*
chemical_list: D016229:Amyloid beta-Peptides; D015415:Biomarkers