title: Targeted imaging of bacterial infections: advances, hurdles and hopes.
abstract: Bacterial infections represent an increasing problem in modern health care, in particular due to ageing populations and accumulating bacterial resistance to antibiotics. Diagnosis is rarely straightforward and consequently treatment is often delayed or indefinite. Therefore, novel tools that can be clinically implemented are urgently needed to accurately and swiftly diagnose infections. Especially, the direct imaging of infections is an attractive option. The challenge of specifically imaging bacterial infections in vivo can be met by targeting bacteria with an imaging agent. Here we review the current status of targeted imaging of bacterial infections, and we discuss advantages and disadvantages of the different approaches. Indeed, significant progress has been made in this field and the clinical implementation of targeted imaging of bacterial infections seems highly feasible. This was recently highlighted by the use of so-called smart activatable probes and a fluorescently labelled derivative of the antibiotic vancomycin. A major challenge remains the selection of the best imaging probes, and we therefore present a set of target selection criteria for clinical implementation of targeted bacterial imaging. Altogether, we conclude that the spectrum of potential applications for targeted bacterial imaging is enormous, ranging from fundamental research on infectious diseases to diagnostic and therapeutic applications.
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, PO Box 30001, 9700 RB Groningen, the Netherlands Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, PO Box 30001, 9700 RB Groningen, the Netherlands.
authors.forename: Marleen
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: van Oosten
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, PO Box 30001, 9700 RB Groningen, the Netherlands.
authors.forename: Markus
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Hahn
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, PO Box 30001, 9700 RB Groningen, the Netherlands.
authors.forename: Lucia M A
authors.initials: LM
authors.lastname: Crane
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, PO Box 30001, 9700 RB Groningen, the Netherlands.
authors.forename: Rick G
authors.initials: RG
authors.lastname: Pleijhuis
authors.affiliation: PerkinElmer, Alameda, California, CA 94501, USA.
authors.forename: Kevin P
authors.initials: KP
authors.lastname: Francis
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, PO Box 30001, 9700 RB Groningen, the Netherlands j.m.van.dijl01@umcg.nl.
authors.forename: Jan Maarten
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: van Dijl
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, PO Box 30001, 9700 RB Groningen, the Netherlands.
authors.forename: Gooitzen M
authors.initials: GM
authors.lastname: van Dam
mesh_terms: D001424:Bacterial Infections / Q000175:diagnosis*; D003952:Diagnostic Imaging; D019937:Diagnostic Techniques and Procedures / Q000592:standards / Q000639:trends*; D006801:Humans; D015335:Molecular Probes
chemical_list: D015335:Molecular Probes
keywords: bacteria; fluorescence; imaging; infection; radioisotope; tracer