title: Positive Effect of Large Birth Intervals on Early Childhood Hemoglobin Levels in Africa Is Limited to Girls: Cross-Sectional DHS Study.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Short birth intervals are independently associated with increased risk of adverse maternal, perinatal, infant and child outcomes. Anemia in children, which is highly prevalent in Africa, is associated with an increased risk of morbidity and mortality. Birth spacing is advocated as a tool to reduce anemia in preschool African children, but the role of gender differences and contextual factors has been neglected. The present study aims to determine to what extent the length of preceding birth interval influences the hemoglobin levels of African preschool children in general, as well as for boys and girls separately, and which contextual factors thereby play a crucial role.
  
  
  RESULTS
  This cross-sectional study uses data from Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) conducted between 2003 and 2011 in 20 African countries. All preschool children aged 6-59 months with a valid hemoglobin measurement and a preceding birth interval of 7-72 months as well as their corresponding multigravida mothers aged 21-49 years were included in the study. Hemoglobin levels of children and mothers were measured in g/l, while birth intervals were calculated as months difference between consecutive births. Multivariate analyses were done to examine the relationship between length of preceding birth interval and child hemoglobin levels, adjusted for factors at the individual, household, community, district, and country level. A positive linear relationship was observed between birth interval and the 49,260 included children's hemoglobin level, whereby age and sex of the child, hemoglobin level of the mother, household wealth, mother's education and urbanization of place of residence also showed positive associations. In the interaction models, the effect of a month increase in birth interval is associated with an average increase of 0.025 g/l in hemoglobin level (P = 0.001) in girls, while for boys the effect was not significant. In addition, for girls, the effect of length of preceding birth interval was highest in young mothers and mothers with higher hemoglobin levels, while for boys, the highest effect was noticed for those living in more highly educated regions. Finally, significantly higher hemoglobin levels of girls compared to boys were observed at birth but with increasing age, the sex difference in hemoglobin level gradually becomes smaller.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  A longer birth interval has a modest positive effect on early childhood hemoglobin levels of girls, and this effect is strongest when their mothers are in their early twenties and have a high hemoglobin level. Remarkably, although the physiological iron requirement is higher for boys than girls, birth spacing has little influence on hemoglobin levels of preschool boys. We speculate that the preference for male offspring in large parts of Africa significantly influences nutritional patterns of African preschool boys and girls, and as such also determines the different effect of birth spacing. Finally, gender aspects should be considered in intervention programs that aim to improve anemia in African children.
authors.affiliation: Nijmegen Institute for International Health, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Robel
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Afeworki
authors.affiliation: Nijmegen Center for Economics, Institute for Management and Research, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Jeroen
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Smits
authors.affiliation: Department of Paediatrics, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Jules
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Tolboom
authors.affiliation: Nijmegen Institute for International Health, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Andre
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: van der Ven
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000349:Africa; D000367:Age Factors; D001721:Birth Intervals; D002675:Child, Preschool; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D005260:Female; D006454:Hemoglobins / Q000032:analysis*; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D015999:Multivariate Analysis; D011247:Pregnancy; D012737:Sex Factors; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D006454:Hemoglobins