title: Traumatic stress and human DNA methylation: a critical review.
abstract: Animal studies have identified persistent and functional effects of traumatic stress on the epigenome. This review discusses the clinical evidence for trauma-induced changes in DNA methylation across the life span in humans. Studies are reviewed based on reports of trauma exposure during the prenatal period (13 studies), early life (20 studies), and adulthood (ten studies). Even though it is apparent that traumatic stress influences the human epigenome, there are significant drawbacks in the existing human literature. These include a lack of longitudinal studies, methodological heterogeneity, selection of tissue type, and the influence of developmental stage and trauma type on methylation outcomes. These issues are discussed in order to present a way in which future studies can gain more insight into the functional relevance of trauma-related DNA methylation changes. Epigenetic studies investigating the detrimental effects of traumatic stress have great potential for an improved detection and treatment of trauma-related psychiatric disorders.
authors.affiliation: Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Centre Utrecht, PO Box 85500, 3508 GA Utrecht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Christiaan H
authors.initials: CH
authors.lastname: Vinkers
authors.affiliation: Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, Department of Translational Neuroscience, Utrecht, The Netherlands.|John B Pierce Laboratory, Department of Neurobiology, Yale Medical School, New Haven, CT 06519, USA.
authors.forename: Aimilia Lydia
authors.initials: AL
authors.lastname: Kalafateli
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry & Neuropsychology, School for Mental Health & Neuroscience, Maastricht University Medical Centre, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Bart P F
authors.initials: BP
authors.lastname: Rutten
authors.affiliation: Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, Department of Translational Neuroscience, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Martien J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Kas
authors.affiliation: The Mood Disorders Center, Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Department of Mental Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, MD 21205, USA.
authors.forename: Zachary
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Kaminsky
authors.affiliation: Institute of Immunology, Centre de Recherche Public de la Santé/Laboratoire National de Santé, Luxembourg, Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg.
authors.forename: Jonathan D
authors.initials: JD
authors.lastname: Turner
authors.affiliation: Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Centre Utrecht, PO Box 85500, 3508 GA Utrecht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Marco P M
authors.initials: MP
authors.lastname: Boks
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001483:Base Sequence; D019175:DNA Methylation; D044127:Epigenesis, Genetic; D006801:Humans; D008969:Molecular Sequence Data; D040921:Stress Disorders, Traumatic / Q000235:genetics*
keywords: DNA methylation; childhood abuse; early life adversity; epigenetics; humans; traumatic stress