title: The embalming of John of Lancaster, first Duke of Bedford (1435 AD): A forensic analysis.
abstract: During the Middle Ages and Renaissance, embalming the cadaver of the elite was common practice, being a highly technical treatment mixing vegetal and mineral substances. To assess the exact kind of embalming reserved for the dead body (with the practical necessities of desiccation and good odour), we performed a full biomedical analysis of the mummified remains of John Plantagenet of Lancaster, first Duke of Bedford, regent of France for his nephew, the English King Henri VI (died 1435 AD). Here, we show, among other aspects, that the body was embalmed using substances whose origins were in apothecary and botany: mercury, myrtle, mint, frankincense, lime and, possibly, cinnamon and copper.
authors.affiliation: Section of Medical and Forensic Anthropology, UFR of Health Sciences (UVSQ), France philippe.charlier@uvsq.fr.
authors.forename: P
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Charlier
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological Toxicology, University Lariboisière Hospital, France.
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Poupon
authors.affiliation: International Flavors and Fragrancies, France.
authors.forename: G F
authors.initials: GF
authors.lastname: Jeannel
authors.affiliation: International Flavors and Fragrancies, France.
authors.forename: D
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Favier
authors.affiliation: GeoBioStratData.Consulting, France.
authors.forename: S M
authors.initials: SM
authors.lastname: Popescu
authors.affiliation: Section of Medical and Forensic Anthropology, UFR of Health Sciences (UVSQ), France.
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Augias
authors.affiliation: Department of Radiology, University Hospital Pitié-Salpêtrière, France.
authors.forename: I
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Huynh-Charlier
authors.affiliation: Section of Medical and Forensic Anthropology, UFR of Health Sciences (UVSQ), France.
authors.forename: L
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Laquay
authors.affiliation: Institut des Sciences de la Terre de Paris, Pierre et Marie Curie University, France.
authors.forename: O
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Boudouma
authors.affiliation: Departmental Museum of Antiquities, France.
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Dorion-Peyronnet
mesh_terms: D002102:Cadaver; D005197:Famous Persons; D049429:Forensic Pathology / Q000266:history* / Q000379:methods*; D049668:History, 15th Century; D006801:Humans
keywords: Forensic anthropology; SEM; elemental analyses; embalming; history of medicine; identification; microscopy; palynology; status of the cadaver; toxicology