title: A review of therapies for diabetic macular oedema and rationale for combination therapy.
abstract: Diabetic macular oedema (DMO) is responsible for significant visual impairment in diabetic patients. The primary cause of DMO is fluid leakage resulting from increased vascular permeability through contributory anatomical and biochemical changes. These include endothelial cell (EC) death or dysfunction, pericyte loss or dysfunction, thickened basement membrane, loss or dysfunction of glial cells, and loss/change of EC Glycocalyx. The molecular changes include increased reactive oxygen species, pro-inflammatory changes: advanced glycation end products, intracellular adhesion molecule-1, Complement 5-9 deposition and cytokines, which result in increased paracellular permeability, tight junction disruption, and increased transcellular permeability. Laser photocoagulation has been the mainstay of treatment until recently when pharmacological treatments were introduced. The current treatments for DMO target reducing vascular leak in the macula once it has occurred, they do not attempt to treat the underlying pathology. These pharmacological treatments are aimed at antagonising vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) or non-VEGF inflammatory pathways, and include intravitreal injections of anti-VEGFs (ranibizumab, aflibercept or bevacizumab) or steroids (fluocinolone, dexamethasone or triamcinolone) as single therapies. The available evidence suggests that each individual treatment modality in DMO does not result in a completely dry macula in most cases. The ideal treatment for DMO should improve vision and improve morphological changes in the macular (eg, reduce macular oedema) for a significant duration, reduced adverse events, reduced treatment burden and costs, and be well tolerated by patients. This review evaluates the individual treatments available as monotherapies, and discusses the rationale and potential for combination therapy in DMO. A comprehensive review of clinical trials related to DMO and their outcomes was completed. Where phase III randomised control trials were available, these were referenced, if not available, phase II trials have been included.
authors.affiliation: Academic Ophthalmology, Division of Clinical Neuroscience, University of Nottingham, Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingham, UK.
authors.forename: W M K
authors.initials: WM
authors.lastname: Amoaku
authors.affiliation: Academic Ophthalmology, Division of Clinical Neuroscience, University of Nottingham, Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingham, UK.
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Saker
authors.affiliation: Academic Ophthalmology, Division of Clinical Neuroscience, University of Nottingham, Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingham, UK.
authors.forename: E A
authors.initials: EA
authors.lastname: Stewart
mesh_terms: D020533:Angiogenesis Inhibitors / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D000911:Antibodies, Monoclonal / Q000627:therapeutic use; D002986:Clinical Trials as Topic; D003131:Combined Modality Therapy; D003930:Diabetic Retinopathy / Q000628:therapy*; D005938:Glucocorticoids / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D006801:Humans; D058449:Intravitreal Injections; D008028:Light Coagulation / Q000379:methods*; D008269:Macular Edema / Q000628:therapy*; D042461:Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors
chemical_list: D020533:Angiogenesis Inhibitors; D000911:Antibodies, Monoclonal; D005938:Glucocorticoids; D042461:Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A