title: Sex differences in conditioned stimulus discrimination during context-dependent fear learning and its retrieval in humans: the role of biological sex, contraceptives and menstrual cycle phases.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Anxiety disorders are more prevalent in women than in men. Despite this sexual dimorphism, most experimental studies are conducted in male participants and studies focusing on sex differences are sparse. In addition, the role of hormonal contraceptives and menstrual cycle phase in fear conditioning and extinction processes remain largely unknown.
  
  
  METHODS
  We investigated sex differences in context-dependent fear acquisition and extinction (day 1) and their retrieval/expression (day 2). Skin conductance responses (SCRs), fear and unconditioned stimulus expectancy ratings were obtained.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We included 377 individuals (261 women) in our study. Robust sex differences were observed in all dependent measures. Women generally displayed higher subjective ratings but smaller SCRs than men and showed reduced excitatory/inhibitory conditioned stimulus (CS+/CS-) discrimination in all dependent measures. Furthermore, women using hormonal contraceptives showed reduced SCR CS discrimination on day 2 than men and free-cycling women, while menstrual cycle phase had no effect.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Possible limitations include the simultaneous testing of up to 4 participants in cubicles, which might have introduced a social component, and not assessing postexperimental contingency awareness.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The response pattern in women shows striking similarity to previously reported sex differences in patients with anxiety. Our results suggest that pronounced deficits in associative discrimination learning and subjective expression of safety information (CS- responses) might underlie higher prevalence and higher symptom rates seen in women with anxiety disorders. The data call for consideration of biological sex and hormonal contraceptive use in future studies and may suggest that targeting inhibitory learning during therapy might aid precision medicine.
authors.affiliation: From the Department of Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany ( Lonsdorf, Haaker, Schümann, Sommer, Bayer, Brassen, Bunzeck, Gamer, Kalisch); the Karolinska Institutet, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (Haaker); the Department of Psychology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany (Bunzeck); and the Neuroimaging Center (NIC), Focus Program Translational Neuroscience, Johannes Gutenberg University Medical Center Mainz, Germany (Kalisch).
authors.forename: Tina B
authors.initials: TB
authors.lastname: Lonsdorf
authors.affiliation: From the Department of Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany ( Lonsdorf, Haaker, Schümann, Sommer, Bayer, Brassen, Bunzeck, Gamer, Kalisch); the Karolinska Institutet, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (Haaker); the Department of Psychology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany (Bunzeck); and the Neuroimaging Center (NIC), Focus Program Translational Neuroscience, Johannes Gutenberg University Medical Center Mainz, Germany (Kalisch).
authors.forename: Jan
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Haaker
authors.affiliation: From the Department of Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany ( Lonsdorf, Haaker, Schümann, Sommer, Bayer, Brassen, Bunzeck, Gamer, Kalisch); the Karolinska Institutet, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (Haaker); the Department of Psychology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany (Bunzeck); and the Neuroimaging Center (NIC), Focus Program Translational Neuroscience, Johannes Gutenberg University Medical Center Mainz, Germany (Kalisch).
authors.forename: Dirk
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Schümann
authors.affiliation: From the Department of Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany ( Lonsdorf, Haaker, Schümann, Sommer, Bayer, Brassen, Bunzeck, Gamer, Kalisch); the Karolinska Institutet, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (Haaker); the Department of Psychology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany (Bunzeck); and the Neuroimaging Center (NIC), Focus Program Translational Neuroscience, Johannes Gutenberg University Medical Center Mainz, Germany (Kalisch).
authors.forename: Tobias
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Sommer
authors.affiliation: From the Department of Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany ( Lonsdorf, Haaker, Schümann, Sommer, Bayer, Brassen, Bunzeck, Gamer, Kalisch); the Karolinska Institutet, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (Haaker); the Department of Psychology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany (Bunzeck); and the Neuroimaging Center (NIC), Focus Program Translational Neuroscience, Johannes Gutenberg University Medical Center Mainz, Germany (Kalisch).
authors.forename: Janine
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Bayer
authors.affiliation: From the Department of Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany ( Lonsdorf, Haaker, Schümann, Sommer, Bayer, Brassen, Bunzeck, Gamer, Kalisch); the Karolinska Institutet, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (Haaker); the Department of Psychology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany (Bunzeck); and the Neuroimaging Center (NIC), Focus Program Translational Neuroscience, Johannes Gutenberg University Medical Center Mainz, Germany (Kalisch).
authors.forename: Stefanie
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Brassen
authors.affiliation: From the Department of Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany ( Lonsdorf, Haaker, Schümann, Sommer, Bayer, Brassen, Bunzeck, Gamer, Kalisch); the Karolinska Institutet, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (Haaker); the Department of Psychology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany (Bunzeck); and the Neuroimaging Center (NIC), Focus Program Translational Neuroscience, Johannes Gutenberg University Medical Center Mainz, Germany (Kalisch).
authors.forename: Nico
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Bunzeck
authors.affiliation: From the Department of Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany ( Lonsdorf, Haaker, Schümann, Sommer, Bayer, Brassen, Bunzeck, Gamer, Kalisch); the Karolinska Institutet, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (Haaker); the Department of Psychology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany (Bunzeck); and the Neuroimaging Center (NIC), Focus Program Translational Neuroscience, Johannes Gutenberg University Medical Center Mainz, Germany (Kalisch).
authors.forename: Matthias
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Gamer
authors.affiliation: From the Department of Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany ( Lonsdorf, Haaker, Schümann, Sommer, Bayer, Brassen, Bunzeck, Gamer, Kalisch); the Karolinska Institutet, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (Haaker); the Department of Psychology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany (Bunzeck); and the Neuroimaging Center (NIC), Focus Program Translational Neuroscience, Johannes Gutenberg University Medical Center Mainz, Germany (Kalisch).
authors.forename: Raffael
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Kalisch
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D059031:Anticipation, Psychological / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology; D001245:Association Learning / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology; D003214:Conditioning, Classical / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology*; D003271:Contraceptive Agents, Female / Q000627:therapeutic use; D004192:Discrimination, Psychological / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology; D005108:Extinction, Psychological / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology; D005239:Fear / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology* / Q000523:psychology*; D005260:Female; D005712:Galvanic Skin Response / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008597:Menstrual Cycle / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology* / Q000523:psychology*; D012727:Sex Characteristics; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D003271:Contraceptive Agents, Female