title: A Double Transducer for High Precision Ultrasonic Time-Domain Reflectometry Measurements.
abstract: Membrane fouling, where unwanted particles accumulate on the membrane surface and reduce its permeability, causes problems in membrane filtration processes. With ultrasonic time-domain reflectometry (UTDR) it is possible to measure the extent of membrane fouling and hence take actions to minimize it. However, the usability of UTDR is very limited to constant filtration conditions if the sonic velocity, which has a great impact on UTDR measurement accuracy, is unknown. With a reference transducer the actual sonic velocity can be measured. This requires another transducer to be installed in the module, where there may be only limited space or the module dimensions may not be suitable for the reference transducer. A double transducer described in this study eliminates the need for a separate reference transducer because in the double transducer the reference measurement is included in the design of the transducer holder. Two sensors in the same holder require less space. Other advantage is that the double transducer can be placed near the measurement target and hence the local sonic velocity can be determined.
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Separation Technology, School of Engineering Science, Lappeenranta University of Technology, P.O. Box 20, Lappeenranta FI-53851, Finland. stade@lut.fi.
authors.forename: Sam
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Stade
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Physics, School of Engineering Science, Lappeenranta University of Technology, P.O. Box 20, Lappeenranta FIN-53851, Finland. tuomas.t.hakkarainen@lut.fi.
authors.forename: Tuomas
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Hakkarainen
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Separation Technology, School of Engineering Science, Lappeenranta University of Technology, P.O. Box 20, Lappeenranta FI-53851, Finland. mari.kallioinen@lut.fi.
authors.forename: Mari
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Kallioinen
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Separation Technology, School of Engineering Science, Lappeenranta University of Technology, P.O. Box 20, Lappeenranta FI-53851, Finland. mika.manttari@lut.fi.
authors.forename: Mika
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Mänttäri
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Physics, School of Engineering Science, Lappeenranta University of Technology, P.O. Box 20, Lappeenranta FIN-53851, Finland. tuure.tuuva@lut.fi.
authors.forename: Tuure
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Tuuva
keywords: UTDR; double transducer; environmental compensation; piezoelectric; reference transducer; time-of-flight measurement; ultrasonic time-domain reflectometry