title: Quantification of Human Norovirus GII on Hands of Mothers with Children Under the Age of Five Years in Bagamoyo, Tanzania.
abstract: Human noroviruses are the most common cause of viral gastroenteritis worldwide and one of the leading causes of viral diarrhea in children under the age of 5 years. Hands have been shown to play an important role in norovirus transmission. Norovirus outbreaks tend to exhibit strong seasonality, most often occurring during cold, dry months, but recently have also been documented during hot, dry winter months in the southern hemisphere. Other research suggests that rainfall is an important factor in norovirus outbreaks. This study examines the prevalence and concentration of human norovirus GII on the hands of mothers in Bagamoyo, Tanzania, during the rainy and dry seasons. Norovirus GII was detected in approximately 5% of hand rinse samples during both the rainy and dry seasons. Fecal indicator bacteria levels, Escherichia coli and enterococci, in hand rinse samples were not associated with norovirus hand contamination. Turbidity of the hand rinses was found to be associated with norovirus presence on mothers' hands; however, this relationship was only observed during the rainy season. The results suggest mothers' hands serve as a source of norovirus exposure for young children in Tanzanian households, and further work is needed to determine better indicators of norovirus contamination in these environments.
authors.affiliation: Environmental and Water Studies, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California; Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University, Stanford, California; Bagamoyo Research and Training Unit, Ifakara Health Institute, Bagamoyo, Tanzania.
authors.forename: Mia Catharine M
authors.initials: MC
authors.lastname: Mattioli
authors.affiliation: Environmental and Water Studies, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California; Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University, Stanford, California; Bagamoyo Research and Training Unit, Ifakara Health Institute, Bagamoyo, Tanzania.
authors.forename: Jennifer
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Davis
authors.affiliation: Environmental and Water Studies, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California; Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University, Stanford, California; Bagamoyo Research and Training Unit, Ifakara Health Institute, Bagamoyo, Tanzania.
authors.forename: Mwifadhi
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Mrisho
authors.affiliation: Environmental and Water Studies, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California; Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University, Stanford, California; Bagamoyo Research and Training Unit, Ifakara Health Institute, Bagamoyo, Tanzania aboehm@stanford.edu.
authors.forename: Alexandria B
authors.initials: AB
authors.lastname: Boehm
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D017250:Caliciviridae Infections / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000635:transmission / Q000821:virology; D002675:Child, Preschool; D005260:Female; D005759:Gastroenteritis / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000821:virology; D006225:Hand / Q000821:virology*; D063373:Hand Hygiene; D006801:Humans; D008875:Middle Aged; D029322:Norovirus / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D020133:Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction; D012621:Seasons; D013636:Tanzania / Q000453:epidemiology; D055815:Young Adult