title: Infection as a Trigger for Portal Hypertension.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Microbial infections are a relevant problem for patients with liver cirrhosis. Different types of bacteria are responsible for different kinds of infections: Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae are frequently observed in spontaneous bacterial peritonitis or urinary tract infections, and Streptococcus pneumoniae and Mycoplasma pneumoniae in pulmonary infections. Mortality is up to 4-fold higher in infected patients with liver cirrhosis than in patients without infections. Key Messages: Infections in patients with liver cirrhosis are due to three major reasons: bacterial translocation, immune deficiency and an increased incidence of systemic infections. Nonparenchymal liver cells like Kupffer cells, sinusoidal endothelial cells and hepatic stellate cells are the first liver cells to come into contact with microbial products when systemic infection or bacterial translocation occurs. Kupffer cell (KC) activation by Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists and endothelial sinusoidal dysfunction have been shown to be important mechanisms increasing portal pressure following intraperitoneal lipopolysaccharide pretreatment in cirrhotic rat livers. Reduced intrahepatic vasodilation and increased intrahepatic vasoconstriction are the relevant pathophysiological pathways. Thromboxane A2 and leukotriene (LT) C4/D4 have been identified as important vasoconstrictors. Accordingly, treatment with montelukast to inhibit the cysteinyl-LT1 receptor reduced portal pressure in cirrhotic rat livers. Clinical studies have demonstrated that activation of KCs, estimated by the amount of soluble CD163 in the blood, correlates with the risk for variceal bleeding. Additionally, intestinal decontamination with rifaximin in patients with alcohol-associated liver cirrhosis reduced the portal pressure and the risk for variceal bleeding.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  TLR activation of nonparenchymal liver cells by pathogens results in portal hypertension. This might explain the pathophysiologic correlation between microbial infections and portal hypertension in patients with liver cirrhosis. These findings are the basis for both better risk stratifying and new treatment options, such as specific inhibition of TLR for patients with liver cirrhosis and portal hypertension.
authors.affiliation: Department of Medicine II, University Hospital LMU Munich, Liver Center Munich, Munich, Germany.
authors.forename: Christian J
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: Steib
authors.forename: Julia
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Schewe
authors.forename: Alexander L
authors.initials: AL
authors.lastname: Gerbes
mesh_terms: D000085:Acetates / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000818:Animals; D000890:Anti-Infective Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use; D015703:Antigens, CD / Q000097:blood; D015214:Antigens, Differentiation, Myelomonocytic / Q000097:blood; D018988:Bacterial Translocation; D003521:Cyclopropanes; D042783:Endothelial Cells / Q000378:metabolism / Q000382:microbiology; D004932:Esophageal and Gastric Varices; D006471:Gastrointestinal Hemorrhage / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000209:etiology; D016905:Gram-Negative Bacterial Infections / Q000150:complications / Q000382:microbiology / Q000503:physiopathology*; D055166:Hepatic Stellate Cells / Q000378:metabolism / Q000382:microbiology; D006801:Humans; D006975:Hypertension, Portal / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000382:microbiology*; D007728:Kupffer Cells / Q000378:metabolism / Q000382:microbiology; D020024:Leukotriene Antagonists / Q000627:therapeutic use; D015289:Leukotrienes / Q000378:metabolism; D008099:Liver / Q000098:blood supply / Q000378:metabolism / Q000382:microbiology; D008103:Liver Cirrhosis / Q000150:complications / Q000382:microbiology* / Q000401:mortality; D017082:Portal Pressure; D011804:Quinolines / Q000627:therapeutic use; D051381:Rats; D011956:Receptors, Cell Surface / Q000097:blood; D012294:Rifamycins / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000078262:Rifaximin; D013440:Sulfides; D013928:Thromboxane A2 / Q000378:metabolism; D014661:Vasoconstriction; D000098902:CD163 Antigen
chemical_list: D000085:Acetates; D000890:Anti-Infective Agents; D015703:Antigens, CD; D015214:Antigens, Differentiation, Myelomonocytic; D000098902:CD163 Antigen; D003521:Cyclopropanes; D020024:Leukotriene Antagonists; D015289:Leukotrienes; D011804:Quinolines; D011956:Receptors, Cell Surface; D012294:Rifamycins; D013440:Sulfides; D013928:Thromboxane A2; D000078262:Rifaximin; C093875:montelukast