title: Effect of silver nanoparticles on Mediterranean sea urchin embryonal development is species specific and depends on moment of first exposure.
abstract: With the ever growing use of nanoparticles in a broad range of industrial and consumer applications there is increasing likelihood that such nanoparticles will enter the aquatic environment and be transported through freshwater systems, eventually reaching estuarine or marine waters. Due to silver's known antimicrobial properties and widespread use of silver nanoparticles (AgNP), their environmental fate and impact is therefore of particular concern. In this context we have investigated the species-specific effects of low concentrations of 60 nm AgNP on embryonal development in Mediterranean sea urchins Arbacia lixula, Paracentrotus lividus and Sphaerechinus granularis. The sensitivity of urchin embryos was tested by exposing embryos to nanoparticle concentrations in the 1-100 μg L(-1) range, with times of exposure varying from 30 min to 24 h (1 h-48 h for S. granularis) post-fertilisation which corresponded with fertilized egg, 4 cell, blastula and gastrula development phases. The most sensitive species to AgNP was A. lixula with significant modulation of embryonal development at the lowest AgNP concentrations of 1-10 μg L(-1) with high numbers of malformed embryos or arrested development. The greatest impact on development was noted for those embryos first exposed to nanoparticles at 6 and 24 h post fertilisation. For P. lividus, similar effects were noted at higher concentrations of 50 μg L(-1) and 100 μg L(-1) for all times of first exposure. The S. granularis embryos indicated a moderate AgNP impact, and significant developmental abnormalities were recorded in the concentration range of 10-50 μg L(-1). As later post-fertilisation exposure times to AgNP caused greater developmental changes in spite of a shorter total exposure time led us to postulate on additional mechanisms of AgNP toxicity. The results herein indicate that toxic effects of AgNP are species-specific. The moment at which embryos first encounter AgNP is also shown to be an important factor in the development of abnormalities, and future applications of the sea urchin embryo development test for nanoparticle toxicity testing should carefully address the specific phase of development of embryos when nanoparticles are first introduced.
authors.affiliation: Center for Marine Research, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Giordano Paliaga 5, 52210 Rovinj, Croatia.
authors.forename: Petra
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Burić
authors.affiliation: Center for Marine Research, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Giordano Paliaga 5, 52210 Rovinj, Croatia.
authors.forename: Željko
authors.initials: Ž
authors.lastname: Jakšić
authors.affiliation: Center for Marine Research, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Giordano Paliaga 5, 52210 Rovinj, Croatia.
authors.forename: Lara
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Štajner
authors.affiliation: Division of Physical Chemistry, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička cesta 54, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia.
authors.forename: Maja
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Dutour Sikirić
authors.affiliation: Division of Physical Chemistry, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička cesta 54, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia.
authors.forename: Darija
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Jurašin
authors.affiliation: European Commission - Joint Research Centre, Institute for Health and Consumer Protection, T.P. 203, Via E. Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra, VA, Italy.
authors.forename: Claudia
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Cascio
authors.affiliation: European Commission - Joint Research Centre, Institute for Health and Consumer Protection, T.P. 203, Via E. Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra, VA, Italy.
authors.forename: Luigi
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Calzolai
authors.affiliation: Center for Marine Research, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Giordano Paliaga 5, 52210 Rovinj, Croatia. Electronic address: lyons@irb.hr.
authors.forename: Daniel Mark
authors.initials: DM
authors.lastname: Lyons
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D047308:Arbacia / Q000187:drug effects / Q000196:embryology; D017523:Croatia; D004305:Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; D047108:Embryonic Development / Q000187:drug effects*; D004781:Environmental Exposure; D008522:Mediterranean Sea; D053768:Metal Nanoparticles / Q000633:toxicity*; D047328:Paracentrotus / Q000187:drug effects / Q000196:embryology; D012617:Sea Urchins / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000196:embryology; D012834:Silver / Q000633:toxicity*; D013045:Species Specificity; D013997:Time Factors; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000633:toxicity*
chemical_list: D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical; D012834:Silver
keywords: Arbacia lixula; Paracentrotus lividus; Sea urchin embryo development test; Silver nanoparticle; Sphaerechinus granularis