title: Biofilms and Wounds: An Identification Algorithm and Potential Treatment Options.
abstract: Significance:The presence of a"pathogenic"or"highly virulent"biofilm is a fundamental risk factor that prevents a chronic wound from healing and increases the risk of the wound becoming clinically infected. There is presently no unequivocal gold standard method available for clinicians to confirm the presence of biofilms in a wound. Thus, to help support clinician practice, we devised an algorithm intended to demonstrate evidence of the presence of a biofilm in a wound to assist with wound management.Recent Advances:A variety of histological and microscopic methods applied to tissue biopsies are currently the most informative techniques available for demonstrating the presence of generic (not classified as pathogenic or commensal) biofilms and the effect they are having in promoting inflammation and downregulating cellular functions.Critical Issues:Even as we rely on microscopic techniques to visualize biofilms, they are entities which are patchy and dispersed rather than confluent, particularly on biotic surfaces. Consequently, detection of biofilms by microscopic techniques alone can lead to frequent false-negative results. Furthermore, visual identification using the naked eye of apathogenicbiofilm on a macroscopic level on the wound will not be possible, unlike with biofilms on abiotic surfaces.Future Direction:Lacking specific biomarkers to demonstrate microscopic, nonconfluent, virulent biofilms in wounds, the present focus on biofilm research should be placed on changing clinical practice. This is best done by utilizing an anti-biofilm toolbox approach, rather than speculating on unscientific approaches to identifying biofilms, with or without staining, in wounds with the naked eye. The approach to controlling biofilm should include initial wound cleansing, periodic debridement, followed by the application of appropriate antimicrobial wound dressings. This approach appears to be effective in removing pathogenic biofilms.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool , Liverpool, United Kingdom . ; Surface Science Research Centre, University of Liverpool , Liverpool, United Kingdom . ; Scapa Healthcare , Manchester, United Kingdom .
authors.forename: Steven L
authors.initials: SL
authors.lastname: Percival
authors.affiliation: Microbial Biofilm Laboratory , IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy .
authors.forename: Claudia
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Vuotto
authors.affiliation: Microbial Biofilm Laboratory , IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy .
authors.forename: Gianfranco
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Donelli
authors.affiliation: Division of Medical Sciences, University of Oxford , Oxford, United Kingdom . ; Department of Medicine (Infectious Diseases) University of Geneva , Geneva, Switzerland .
authors.forename: Benjamin A
authors.initials: BA
authors.lastname: Lipsky