title: Evolution of fairness in the dictator game by multilevel selection.
abstract: The most perplexing experimental results on fairness come from the dictator game where one of two players, the dictator, decides how to divide a resource with an anonymous player. The dictator, acting self-interestedly, should offer nothing to the anonymous second player, but in experimental studies, dictators offer much more than nothing. We developed a multilevel selection model to explain why people offer more than nothing in the dictator game. We show that fairness can evolve when population structure emerges from the aggregation and limited dispersal of offspring. We begin with an analytical model that shows how fair behavior can benefit groups by minimizing within-group variance in resources and thereby increasing group fitness. To investigate the generality of this result, we developed an agent-based model with agents that have no information about other agents. We allowed agents to aggregate into groups and evolve different levels of fairness by playing the dictator game for resources to reproduce. This allowed multilevel selection to emerge from the spatiotemporal properties of individual agents. We found that the population structure that emerged under low population densities was most conducive to the evolution of fairness, which is consistent with group selection as a major evolutionary force. We also found that fairness only evolves if resources are not too scarce relative to the lifespan of agents. We conclude that the evolution of fairness could evolve under multilevel selection. Thus, our model provides a novel explanation for the results of dictator game experiments, in which participants often fairly split a resource rather than keeping it all for themselves.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA. Electronic address: jcschank@ucdavis.edu.
authors.forename: Jeffrey C
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Schank
authors.affiliation: Department of Anthropology, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
authors.forename: Paul E
authors.initials: PE
authors.lastname: Smaldino
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
authors.forename: Matt L
authors.initials: ML
authors.lastname: Miller
mesh_terms: D005075:Biological Evolution; D003198:Computer Simulation; D005716:Game Theory; D006801:Humans; D040582:Inheritance Patterns / Q000235:genetics; D008954:Models, Biological; D055361:Multilevel Analysis; D011336:Probability; D012098:Reproduction; D013597:Systems Analysis
keywords: Cooperation; Group selection; Inequality; Prosocial; Sharing