title: Occupational Exposure to Trichloramine and Trihalomethanes in Swedish Indoor Swimming Pools: Evaluation of Personal and Stationary Monitoring.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Chlorination is a method commonly used to keep indoor swimming pool water free from pathogens. However, chlorination of swimming pools produces several potentially hazardous by-products as the chlorine reacts with nitrogen containing organic matter. Up till now, exposure assessments in indoor swimming pools have relied on stationary measurements at the poolside, used as a proxy for personal exposure. However, measurements at fixed locations are known to differ from personal exposure.
  
  
  METHODS
  Eight public swimming pool facilities in four Swedish cities were included in this survey. Personal and stationary sampling was performed during day or evening shift. Samplers were placed at different fixed positions around the pool facilities, at ~1.5 m above the floor level and 0-1 m from the poolside. In total, 52 personal and 110 stationary samples of trichloramine and 51 personal and 109 stationary samples of trihalomethanes, were collected.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The average concentration of trichloramine for personal sampling was 71 µg m(-3), ranging from 1 to 240 µg m(-3) and for stationary samples 179 µg m(-3), ranging from 1 to 640 µg m(-3). The air concentrations of chloroform were well below the occupational exposure limit (OEL). For the linear regression analysis and prediction of personal exposure to trichloramine from stationary sampling, only data from personal that spent >50% of their workday in the pool area were included. The linear regression analysis showed a correlation coefficient (r2) of 0.693 and a significant regression coefficient β of 0.621; (95% CI = 0.329-0.912, P = 0.001).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The trichloramine exposure levels determined in this study were well below the recommended air concentration level of 500 µg m(-3); a WHO reference value based on stationary sampling. Our regression data suggest a relation between personal exposure and area sampling of 1:2, implying an OEL of 250 µg m(-3) based on personal sampling.
authors.affiliation: Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, SE-701 85 Örebro, Sweden; Department of Clinical Medicine, School of Health Sciences, Örebro University, SE-701 85 Örebro, Sweden;
authors.forename: Jessica
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Westerlund
authors.affiliation: Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, SE-701 85 Örebro, Sweden; pal.graff@orebroll.se.
authors.forename: Pål
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Graff
authors.affiliation: Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, SE-701 85 Örebro, Sweden;
authors.forename: Ing-Liss
authors.initials: IL
authors.lastname: Bryngelsson
authors.affiliation: Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, SE-701 85 Örebro, Sweden; Man-Technology-Environment Research Centre (MTM), Department of Science, Örebro University, SE-701 85 Örebro, Sweden;
authors.forename: Håkan
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Westberg
authors.affiliation: Department of Public Health and Clinical Medicine, Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Umeå University, SE-90187 Umeå, Sweden.
authors.forename: Kåre
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Eriksson
authors.affiliation: Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, SE-701 85 Örebro, Sweden;
authors.forename: Håkan
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Löfstedt
mesh_terms: D000393:Air Pollutants / Q000032:analysis; D016902:Air Pollution, Indoor / Q000032:analysis* / Q000517:prevention & control; D002712:Chlorides / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000032:analysis*; D004784:Environmental Monitoring / Q000379:methods*; D006801:Humans; D016014:Linear Models; D017672:Nitrogen Compounds / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000032:analysis*; D016273:Occupational Exposure / Q000032:analysis* / Q000517:prevention & control; D013548:Sweden; D013551:Swimming Pools; D022882:Trihalomethanes / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000032:analysis*
chemical_list: D000393:Air Pollutants; D002712:Chlorides; D017672:Nitrogen Compounds; D022882:Trihalomethanes; C037454:nitrogen chloride
keywords: exposure assessment; exposure assessment methodology; trichloramine; trihalomethanes