title: Mitochondrial DNA sequence divergence and diversity of Glossina fuscipes fuscipes in the Lake Victoria basin of Uganda: implications for control.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Glossina fuscipes fuscipes is the main vector of African Trypanosomiasis affecting both humans and livestock in Uganda. The human disease (sleeping sickness) manifests itself in two forms: acute and chronic. The Lake Victoria basin in Uganda has the acute form and a history of tsetse re-emergence despite concerted efforts to control tsetse. The government of Uganda has targeted the basin for tsetse eradication. To provide empirical data for this initiative, we screened tsetse flies from the basin for genetic variation at the mitochondrial DNA cytochrome oxidase II (mtDNA COII) gene with the goal of investigating genetic diversity and gene flow among tsetse, tsetse demographic history; and compare these results with results from a previous study based on microsatellite loci data in the same area.
  
  
  METHODS
  We collected 429 Gff tsetse fly samples from 14 localities in the entire Ugandan portion of the Lake Victoria coast, covering 40,000 km(2). We performed genetic analyses on them and added data collected for 56 Gff individuals from 4 additional sampling sites in the basin. The 529 pb partial mitochondrial DNA cytochrome oxidase II (mtDNA COII) sequences totaling 485 were analysed for genetic differentiation, structuring and demographic history. The results were compared with findings from a previous study based on microsatellite loci data from the basin.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The differences within sampling sites explained a significant proportion of the genetic variation. We found three very closely related mtDNA population clusters, which co-occurred in multiple sites. Although Φ ST (0 - 0.592; P < 0.05) and Bayesian analyses suggest some level of weak genetic differentiation, there is no correlation between genetic divergence and geographic distance (r = 0.109, P = 0.185), and demographic tests provide evidence of locality-based demographic history.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The mtDNA data analysed here complement inferences made in a previous study based on microsatellite data. Given the differences in mutation rates, mtDNA afforded a look further back in time than microsatellites and revealed that Gff populations were more connected in the past. Microsatellite data revealed more genetic structuring than mtDNA. The differences in connectedness and structuring over time could be related to vector control efforts. Tsetse re-emergence after control interventions may be due to re-invasions from outside the treated areas, which emphasizes the need for an integrated area-wide tsetse eradication strategy for sustainable removal of the tsetse and trypanosomiasis problem from this area.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Makerere University, Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda. agapituskato@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Agapitus B
authors.initials: AB
authors.lastname: Kato
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology, University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, 38677, USA. chaz.hyseni@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Chaz
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Hyseni
authors.affiliation: National Livestock Resources Research Institute, Tororo, Uganda. lmokedi@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Loyce M
authors.initials: LM
authors.lastname: Okedi
authors.affiliation: Biotechnology Research Institute, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, Kikuyu, Kenya. joouma@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Johnson O
authors.initials: JO
authors.lastname: Ouma
authors.affiliation: Division of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA. joouma@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Serap
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Aksoy
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA. adalgisa.caccone@yale.edu.
authors.forename: Adalgisa
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Caccone
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Makerere University, Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda. cmasembe@cns.mak.ac.ug.
authors.forename: Charles
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Masembe
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D004272:DNA, Mitochondrial / Q000235:genetics*; D019143:Evolution, Molecular; D051456:Gene Flow; D014644:Genetic Variation; D007300:Insect Control; D060106:Lakes; D010802:Phylogeny; D014370:Tsetse Flies / Q000145:classification / Q000235:genetics*; D014454:Uganda
chemical_list: D004272:DNA, Mitochondrial