title: Integration between the face and the mandible of Pongo and the evolution of the craniofacial morphology of orangutans.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Extant Pongo diverges from other hominids by a series of craniofacial morphological features, such as a concave face, a reduced supraorbital torus, or an upwardly orientated palate. These traits are not independent because the skull is a complex integrated structure. The aim of this study is to describe the relationship between the face and mandible of Pongo, in order to examine the link between mandibular structures and the set-up of the unique facial features of orangutans.
  
  
  METHODS
  Using 3D geometric morphometrics, the morphological integration between face and mandible of Pongo is compared to that of the three extant hominids: Homo, Pan, and Gorilla. Pooled within-species partial least squares analyses are computed in order to quantify the patterns and levels of integration.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The covariation analyses show unique patterns of integration and levels of correlation in Pongo when compared to other hominids. This study shows that the craniofacial features distinguishing Pongo from African great apes are related to differences in the patterns of integration and levels of correlation between facial and mandibular shape.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Changes in important functions may play a part in these modifications of craniofacial integration. This study underlines the importance of the mandible and of the mandibular functions in the development of the unique craniofacial features of Pongo.
authors.affiliation: Institut De Paléoprimatologie, Paléontologie Humaine: Evolution Et Paléoenvironnements UMR CNRS 7262, Université De Poitiers, Poitiers, F-86073, France.
authors.forename: Dimitri
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Neaux
authors.affiliation: Department of African Zoology, Royal Museum of Central Africa, Tervuren, B-3080, Belgium.|Université Libre De Bruxelles, Laboratory of Histology and Neuropathology, Brussels, B-1070, Belgium.|Department of Anthropology, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, 72701.
authors.forename: Emmanuel
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Gilissen
authors.affiliation: Department of Radiology, University Hospitals Leuven, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium.
authors.forename: Walter
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Coudyzer
authors.affiliation: Institut De Paléoprimatologie, Paléontologie Humaine: Evolution Et Paléoenvironnements UMR CNRS 7262, Université De Poitiers, Poitiers, F-86073, France.
authors.forename: Franck
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Guy
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000885:Anthropology, Physical; D005075:Biological Evolution; D005145:Face / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D005260:Female; D015186:Hominidae / Q000033:anatomy & histology; D006801:Humans; D016018:Least-Squares Analysis; D008297:Male; D008334:Mandible / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D057079:Pongo / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D012886:Skull / Q000033:anatomy & histology*
keywords: airorhynchy; covariation; hominid; partial least squares; skull