title: Bone and cartilage regeneration with the use of umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The production of functional alternatives to bone autografts and the development new treatment strategies for cartilage defects are great challenges that could be addressed by the field of tissue engineering. Umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) can be used to produce cost-effective, atraumatic and possibly autologous bone and cartilage grafts.
  
  
  METHODS
  MSCs can be isolated from umbilical cord Wharton's jelly, perivascular tissue and blood using various techniques. Those cells have been characterized and phenotypic similarities with bone marrow-derived MSCs (BM-MSCs) and embryonic stem cells have been found. Findings on their differentiation into the osteogenic and chondrogenic lineage differ between studies and are not as consistent as for BM-MSCs.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  MSCs from umbilical cords have to be more extensively studied and the mechanisms underlying their differentiation have to be clarified. To date, they seem to be an attractive alternative to BM-MSCs. However, further research with suitable scaffolds and growth factors as well as with novel scaffold fabrication and culture technology should be conducted before they are introduced to clinical practice and replace BM-MSCs.
authors.affiliation: a 1 Imperial College London, Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemical Technology , South Kensington Campus, London, UK miklontzas@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Michail E
authors.initials: ME
authors.lastname: Klontzas
authors.affiliation: b 2 Aristotle University Medical School, Academic Orthopaedic Unit , University Campus 54 124, Thessaloniki, Greece.|c 3 Aristotle University Medical School, "PapaGeorgiou" General Hospital, Academic Orthopaedic Unit , Thessaloniki, Greece.
authors.forename: Eustathios I
authors.initials: EI
authors.lastname: Kenanidis
authors.affiliation: d 4 London North West Healthcare NHS Trust , London, UK.
authors.forename: Manolis
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Heliotis
authors.affiliation: b 2 Aristotle University Medical School, Academic Orthopaedic Unit , University Campus 54 124, Thessaloniki, Greece.|e 5 Imperial College London, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Division of Surgery , B-block, Hammersmith, Du-Cane Road, London, UK.
authors.forename: Eleftherios
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Tsiridis
authors.affiliation: f 6 Imperial College London, Department of Chemical Engineering , South Kensington Campus, London, UK.
authors.forename: Athanasios
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Mantalaris
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001861:Bone Regeneration / Q000502:physiology*; D002356:Cartilage / Q000502:physiology*; D002454:Cell Differentiation; D006801:Humans; D036341:Intercellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins / Q000378:metabolism; D045164:Mesenchymal Stem Cell Transplantation; D059630:Mesenchymal Stem Cells / Q000166:cytology* / Q000378:metabolism; D012038:Regeneration; D023822:Tissue Engineering; D014470:Umbilical Cord / Q000166:cytology*
chemical_list: D036341:Intercellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins
keywords: Wharton’s jelly; bone; cartilage; mesenchymal; stem cells; tissue engineering; umbilical cord