title: Within-person comparison of eating behaviors, time of eating, and dietary intake on days with and without breakfast: NHANES 2005-2010.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Breakfast omission is known to be associated with lower 24-h energy intake. However, little is known about downstream eating behaviors subsequent to skipping breakfast in free-living individuals.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  We replicated the traditional crossover design of nutrition studies in a naturalistic setting to compare within-person differences in self-reported eating behaviors, energy intake, and other dietary characteristics of individuals on a day that included breakfast with a day that omitted breakfast.
  
  
  METHODS
  We used cross-sectional dietary data for 2132 adult respondents who reported breakfast in only one of 2 dietary recalls in the NHANES 2005-2010. Dietary outcomes examined included meal- and snack-eating behaviors, clock time of eating episodes, and intakes of energy, macronutrients, and food groups. Regression methods accounted for replicate diet measurements, covariates, and survey-design characteristics.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The breakfast meal provided a mean of 508 kcal in men and 374 kcal in women, but differences in 24-h energy intakes between the breakfast and no-breakfast day were 247 and 187 kcal, respectively. Energy intakes at the lunch meal were higher on the no-breakfast day (202 kcal in men and 121 kcal in women), and the reported time of lunch was ∼35 min earlier. The energy contribution of dinner or its reported time did not differ. A higher number of energy-adjusted servings of fruit and whole grains were reported on the breakfast day, but the energy and macronutrient density of reported foods were not different.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  In free-living American adults, the eating time for lunch was earlier, and the lunch meal provided more energy on the no-breakfast day than on the breakfast day. Although the quality of dietary selections reflected in the energy and macronutrient density of a day's intake did not differ between the breakfast and the no-breakfast day, breakfast skippers may need encouragement to consume fruit and whole grains at other eating episodes.
authors.affiliation: Department of Family, Nutrition, and Exercise Sciences, Queens College of the City University of New York, Flushing, NY; and ashima.kant@qc.cuny.edu.
authors.forename: Ashima K
authors.identifier: http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4141-2063
authors.initials: AK
authors.lastname: Kant
authors.affiliation: Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, Biostatistics Branch, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD.
authors.forename: Barry I
authors.initials: BI
authors.lastname: Graubard
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D062408:Breakfast; D002755:Choice Behavior; D018592:Cross-Over Studies; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D004032:Diet; D002523:Edible Grain; D002149:Energy Intake; D005247:Feeding Behavior; D005260:Female; D005518:Food Preferences; D005638:Fruit; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D015596:Nutrition Assessment; D009749:Nutrition Surveys; D009753:Nutritive Value; D062410:Snacks; D014675:Vegetables; D055815:Young Adult
keywords: NHANES; breakfast; chrononutrition; eating behaviors; eating frequency; energy density; food pattern equivalents; main meals; obesity; time of eating