title: Experimental determination of multiple thermodynamic and kinetic risk factors for nephrolithiasis in the urine of healthy controls and calcium oxalate stone formers: does a universal discriminator exist?
abstract: Nephrolithiasis is thought to be governed by urinary thermodynamic and kinetic risk factors. However, identification of one or more of these factors which consistently and unambiguously differentiates between healthy subjects (N) and calcium oxalate (CaOx) renal stone patients (SF) remains elusive. The present study addresses this challenge. 24 h urines were collected from 15 N and 10 SF. Urine compositions were used to compute thermodynamic risk indices including urinary ratios, quotients and supersaturation (SS) values, while CaOx metastable limits (MSL) were determined experimentally. Crystallisation kinetics was determined by measuring rates of particle formation (number, volume, size) using a Coulter counter multisizer (CC) and a Coulter flow cytometer (FC). Particle shapes were qualitatively differentiated by FC and were viewed directly by scanning electron microscopy. Several urinary composition ratios and risk quotients were significantly different between the groups. However, there were no significant differences between CaOx MSL or SS values. Using transformed FC data, the rate of CaOx crystallisation in SF was significantly greater than in N. This was not supported by CC measurements. There were no significant differences between the groups with respect to particle size or CaOx crystal growth rates. Single and aggregated CaOx dihydrate crystals were observed in both groups with equal frequency and there were no differences in the kinetic properties of these deposits. A few CaOx monohydrate crystals were observed in SF. Although several risk factors were found to be significantly different between the groups, none of them were consistently robust when compared to other cognate factors. Arguments were readily invoked which demonstrated inter-factor inconsistencies and conflicts. We suspect that a unique discriminatory factor, such as any of those which we investigated in the present study, may not exist.
authors.affiliation: Department of Chemistry, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, Cape Town, 7701, South Africa. allen.rodgers@uct.ac.za.
authors.forename: A L
authors.initials: AL
authors.lastname: Rodgers
authors.affiliation: Department of Chemistry, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, Cape Town, 7701, South Africa. webber.dawn@gmail.com.
authors.forename: D
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Webber
authors.affiliation: Department of Chemistry, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, Cape Town, 7701, South Africa.
authors.forename: B
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Hibberd
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D002129:Calcium Oxalate / Q000652:urine*; D016022:Case-Control Studies; D003460:Crystallization; D006801:Humans; D007700:Kinetics; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D053040:Nephrolithiasis / Q000652:urine*; D013816:Thermodynamics; D014556:Urine / Q000737:chemistry
chemical_list: D002129:Calcium Oxalate
keywords: Calcium oxalate; Kinetic risk factors; Risk indices; Thermodynamic risk factors; Urinary discriminators; Urolithiasis