title: Animal models of Graves' disease and Graves' orbitopathy.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The purpose of this article is to summarize the recent advances on experimental Graves' hyperthyroidism and orbitopathy as studied in two widely used mouse models, which involve repetitive genetic vaccinations using either adenovirus or in-vivo electroporation of the eukaryotic expression plasmid expressing the thyrotropin receptor (TSHR) as a vector.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The models have been improved by using different types of antigens, including the holo receptor, the receptor A-subunit, an alternatively spliced form of variant receptor lacking a single leucine-rich repeat in the codomain, the receptors of human or mouse origin; different mice such as wild-type, TSHR knockout, TSHR transgenic and different inbred mice; and different immunization protocols. They are now useful for elucidating the pathogenic mechanisms of not only Graves' hyperthyroidism but also Graves' orbitopathy.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This review summarizes the literature of mouse models of Graves' hyperthyroidism and orbitopathy published over the last 3 years.
authors.affiliation: aDepartment of Molecular Medicine, Atomic Bomb Disease Institute, Nagasaki University bDepartment of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Unit of Translational Medicine, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan.
authors.forename: Yuji
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Nagayama
authors.forename: Mami
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Nakahara
authors.forename: Norio
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Abiru
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D004195:Disease Models, Animal; D006111:Graves Disease / Q000235:genetics / Q000473:pathology*; D049970:Graves Ophthalmopathy / Q000235:genetics / Q000473:pathology*; D006801:Humans; D051379:Mice; D011989:Receptors, Thyrotropin / Q000235:genetics
chemical_list: D011989:Receptors, Thyrotropin