title: Raman Spectroscopic Techniques for Planetary Exploration: Detecting Microorganisms through Minerals.
abstract: Raman spectroscopy can provide highly specific chemical fingerprints of inorganic and organic materials and is therefore expected to play a significant role in interplanetary missions, especially for the search for life elsewhere in our solar system. A major challenge will be the unambiguous detection of low levels of biomarkers on a mineral background. In addition, these biomarkers may not be present at the surface but rather inside or underneath minerals. Strong scattering may prevent focusing deeper into the sample. In this paper, we report the detection of carotenoid-containing microorganisms behind mineral layers using time-resolved Raman spectroscopy (TRRS). Two extremophiles, the bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans and the cyanobacterium Chroococcidiopsis, were detected through translucent and transparent minerals using 440 nm excitation under resonance conditions to selectively enhance the detection of carotenoids. Using 3 ps laser pulses and a 250 ps gated intensified CCD camera provided depth selectivity for the subsurface microorganisms over the mineral surface layer and in addition lowered the contribution of the fluorescent background. Raman spectra of both organisms could be detected through 5 mm of translucent calcite or 20 mm of transparent halite. Multilayered mineral samples were used to further test the applied method. A separate tunable laser setup for resonance Raman and a commercial confocal Raman microscope, both with continuous (non-gated) detection, were used for comparison. This study demonstrates the capabilities of TRRS for the depth-selective analysis through scattering samples, which could be used in future planetary exploration to detect microorganisms or biomarkers within or behind minerals.
authors.affiliation: 1 LaserLaB, Faculty of Sciences, VU University Amsterdam , Amsterdam, the Netherlands .
authors.forename: Mattheus F C
authors.initials: MF
authors.lastname: Verkaaik
authors.affiliation: 1 LaserLaB, Faculty of Sciences, VU University Amsterdam , Amsterdam, the Netherlands .|2 Deep Earth and Planetary Science, Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, VU University Amsterdam , Amsterdam, the Netherlands .
authors.forename: Jan-Hein
authors.initials: JH
authors.lastname: Hooijschuur
authors.affiliation: 2 Deep Earth and Planetary Science, Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, VU University Amsterdam , Amsterdam, the Netherlands .
authors.forename: Gareth R
authors.initials: GR
authors.lastname: Davies
authors.affiliation: 1 LaserLaB, Faculty of Sciences, VU University Amsterdam , Amsterdam, the Netherlands .
authors.forename: Freek
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Ariese
mesh_terms: D015415:Biomarkers / Q000032:analysis; D002119:Calcium Carbonate / Q000737:chemistry*; D002133:Calcium Sulfate / Q000737:chemistry*; D002338:Carotenoids / Q000032:analysis*; D000458:Cyanobacteria / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000302:isolation & purification; D034301:Deinococcus / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000302:isolation & purification; D018559:Exobiology; D005118:Extraterrestrial Environment / Q000737:chemistry; D016083:Planets; D013059:Spectrum Analysis, Raman / Q000379:methods*
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D002338:Carotenoids; D002119:Calcium Carbonate; D002133:Calcium Sulfate