title: Experimental evaluation of environmental scanning electron microscopes at high chamber pressure.
abstract: In environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) high pressure applications have become increasingly important. Wet or biological samples can be investigated without time-consuming sample preparation and potential artefacts from this preparation can be neglected. Unfortunately, the signal-to-noise ratio strongly decreases with increasing chamber pressure. To evaluate the high pressure performance of ESEM and to compare different electron microscopes, information about spatial resolution and detector type is not enough. On the one hand, the scattering of the primary electron beam increases, which vanishes the contrast in images; and on the other hand, the secondary electrons (SE) signal amplification decreases. The stagnation gas thickness (effective distance the beam has to travel through the imaging gas) as well as the SE detection system depend on the microscope and for a complete and serious evaluation of an ESEM or low vacuum SEM it is necessary to specify these two parameters. A method is presented to determine the fraction of scattered and unscattered electrons and to calculate the stagnation gas thickness (θ). To evaluate the high pressure performance of the SE detection system, a method is presented that allows for an analysis of a single image and the calculation of the signal-to-noise ratio of this image. All investigations are performed on an FEI ESEM Quanta 600 (field emission gun) and an FEI ESEM Quanta 200 (thermionic gun). These methods and measurements should represent opportunities for evaluating the high pressure performance of an ESEM.
authors.affiliation: Institute for Electron Microscopy and Nanoanalysis (FELMI), Graz University of Technology (TU Graz), Steyrergasse 17, 8010, Graz, Austria.
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Fitzek
authors.affiliation: Institute for Electron Microscopy and Nanoanalysis (FELMI), Graz University of Technology (TU Graz), Steyrergasse 17, 8010, Graz, Austria.|Graz Centre for Electron Microscopy (ZFE), Steyrergasse 17, 8010, Graz, Austria.
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Schroettner
authors.affiliation: Graz Centre for Electron Microscopy (ZFE), Steyrergasse 17, 8010, Graz, Austria.
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Wagner
authors.affiliation: Institute for Electron Microscopy and Nanoanalysis (FELMI), Graz University of Technology (TU Graz), Steyrergasse 17, 8010, Graz, Austria.|Graz Centre for Electron Microscopy (ZFE), Steyrergasse 17, 8010, Graz, Austria.
authors.forename: F
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Hofer
authors.affiliation: Graz Centre for Electron Microscopy (ZFE), Steyrergasse 17, 8010, Graz, Austria.
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Rattenberger
keywords: Beam loss; ESEM; beam transfer characteristic; environmental scanning electron microscope; pressure limiting aperture; secondary electron detection