title: Prevalence of and motives for pharmacological neuroenhancement in Switzerland--results from a national Internet panel.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To estimate the prevalence of self-reported pharmacological neuroenhancement (PNE) with prescription or recreational drugs among the Swiss general population and correlates of PNE.
  
  
  METHODS
  A population-based cross-sectional study using a self-administered online survey.
  
  
  METHODS
  A telephone-recruited highly representative internet panel in Switzerland.
  
  
  METHODS
  A total of 10,171 Swiss employees and students (unweighted n = 10,084) aged 15-74 years (mean age: 39.1 ± 13.3; 46.6% female).
  
  
  METHODS
  Self-reported life-time, past-year and past-month use of prescription or recreational drugs for PNE, motives for use and correlates of PNE, including socio-demographic, health and recreational drug use characteristics.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The life-time prevalence of PNE was 4.0% [95% confidence interval (CI) = 3.62, 4.38], and the past-year prevalence was 2.1% (95% CI = 1.82, 2.38). Life-time pharmacological mood enhancement (3.1%; 95% CI = 2.76, 3.44) was more prevalent than pharmacological cognitive enhancement (1.4%; 95% CI = 1.17, 1.63). Fifty-four participants reported both (0.5%; 95% CI = 0.36, 0.64). PNE was associated with studying rather than full-time [odds ratio (OR) = 0.35; 95% CI = 0.21, 0.57] or part-time employment (OR = 0.39; 95% CI = 0.23, 0.67), stress (OR = 1.51 95% CI = 1.31, 1.75), cocaine (OR = 2.40; 95% CI = 1.51, 3.82) and amphetamine use (OR = 2.44; CI 95% = 1.37, 4.33), diagnosis of a mental disorder (OR = 4.26; 95% CI = 3.14, 5.80), and perceived poor health (OR = 0.76; 95% CI = 0.64, 0.90).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Taking prescription or recreational drugs for pharmacological neuroenhancement is rare among Swiss employees and students (4.0%). Pharmacological mood enhancement (3.1%) is more prevalent than direct pharmacological cognitive enhancement (1.4%).
authors.affiliation: Swiss Research Institute for Public Health and Addiction (ISGF), Associated Institute at the University of Zurich and WHO Collaborating Centre, Zurich, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Larissa J
authors.initials: LJ
authors.lastname: Maier
authors.affiliation: Swiss Research Institute for Public Health and Addiction (ISGF), Associated Institute at the University of Zurich and WHO Collaborating Centre, Zurich, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Severin
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Haug
authors.affiliation: Swiss Research Institute for Public Health and Addiction (ISGF), Associated Institute at the University of Zurich and WHO Collaborating Centre, Zurich, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Michael P
authors.initials: MP
authors.lastname: Schaub
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D013287:Illicit Drugs; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009042:Motivation; D055553:Prescription Drugs; D015995:Prevalence; D011619:Psychotropic Drugs; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors; D019966:Substance-Related Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000523:psychology; D013557:Switzerland / Q000453:epidemiology; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D013287:Illicit Drugs; D055553:Prescription Drugs; D011619:Psychotropic Drugs
keywords: Cognitive enhancement; epidemiology; illegal drug use; illicit drug use; mood enhancement; non-medical prescription drug use; pharmacological neuroenhancement