title: The genetics of skin, hair, and eye color variation and its relevance to forensic pigmentation predictive tests.
abstract: This review examines the potential application of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)-based predictive tests for skin, hair, and eye color to forensic analysis in support of police investigations lacking DNA database matches or eyewitness testimony. Brief descriptions of the biology of melanogenesis and the main genes involved are presented in order to understand the basis of common pigmentation variation in humans. We outline the most recently developed forensically sensitive multiplex tests that can be applied to investigative analyses. The review also describes the biology of the SNPs with the closest associations to, and therefore the best predictors for, common variation in eye, hair, and skin pigmentation. Because pigmentation pathways are complex in their patterns, many of the better-studied human albinism traits provide insight into how pigmentation SNPs interact, control, or modify gene expression and show varying degrees of association with the key genes identified to date. These aspects of SNP action are discussed in an overview of each of the functional groups of pigmentation genes.
authors.affiliation: Unit of Forensic Genetics, Institute of Forensic Science, Genomic Medicine Group, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Galicia, Spain.
authors.forename: O
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Maroñas
authors.affiliation: Unit of Forensic Genetics, Institute of Forensic Science, Genomic Medicine Group, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Galicia, Spain.
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Söchtig
authors.affiliation: Criminalistics Unit Against Violation of Fundamental Rights (UCCVDF-AMC), Attorney General, Metropolitan Area of Caracas, Santiago de León de Caracas, Venezuela.
authors.forename: Y
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Ruiz
authors.affiliation: Unit of Forensic Genetics, Institute of Forensic Science, Genomic Medicine Group, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Galicia, Spain. c.phillips@mac.com.
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Phillips
authors.affiliation: Unit of Forensic Genetics, Institute of Forensic Science, Genomic Medicine Group, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Galicia, Spain.|Center of Excellence in Genomic Medicine Research, King Abdelaziz University, Jeddah, Makkah Province, Saudi Arabia.
authors.forename: Á
authors.initials: Á
authors.lastname: Carracedo
authors.affiliation: Unit of Forensic Genetics, Institute of Forensic Science, Genomic Medicine Group, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Galicia, Spain.
authors.forename: M V
authors.initials: MV
authors.lastname: Lareu
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D005127:Eye Color / Q000235:genetics*; D053803:Forensic Genetics / Q000379:methods*; D014644:Genetic Variation; D005838:Genotype; D006200:Hair Color / Q000235:genetics*; D006801:Humans; D025202:Molecular Diagnostic Techniques; D010641:Phenotype; D020641:Polymorphism, Single Nucleotide; D011237:Predictive Value of Tests; D012880:Skin Pigmentation / Q000235:genetics*
keywords: DNA phenotyping; SNPs; externally visible characteristics (EVC); eye color; forensic hair color; pigmentation genes; skin color