title: An ethnobotanical study of anti-malarial plants among indigenous people on the upper Negro River in the Brazilian Amazon.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  In this article we present the plants used for the treatment of malaria and associated symptoms in Santa Isabel do Rio Negro in the Brazilian Amazon. The region has important biological and cultural diversities including more than twenty indigenous ethnic groups and a strong history in traditional medicine.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  The aims of this study are to survey information in the Baniwa, Baré, Desana, Piratapuia, Tariana, Tukano, Tuyuca and Yanomami ethnic communities and among caboclos (mixed-ethnicity) on (a) plant species used for the treatment of malaria and associated symptoms, (b) dosage forms and (c) distribution of these anti-malarial plants in the Amazon.
  
  
  METHODS
  Information was obtained through classical ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological methods from interviews with 146 informants in Santa Isabel municipality on the upper Negro River, Brazil.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Fifty-five mainly native neotropical plant species from 34 families were in use. The detailed uses of these plants were documented. The result was 187 records (64.5%) of plants for the specific treatment of malaria, 51 records (17.6%) of plants used in the treatment of liver problems and 29 records (10.0%) of plants used in the control of fevers associated with malaria. Other uses described were blood fortification ('dar sangue'), headache and prophylaxis. Most of the therapeutic preparations were decoctions and infusions based on stem bark, root bark and leaves. These were administered by mouth. In some cases, remedies were prepared with up to three different plant species. Also, plants were used together with other ingredients such as insects, mammals, gunpowder and milk.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This is the first study on the anti-malarial plants from this region of the Amazon. Aspidosperma spp. and Ampelozizyphus amazonicus Ducke were the most cited species in the communities surveyed. These species have experimental proof supporting their anti-malarial efficacy. The dosage of the therapeutic preparations depends on the kind of plant, quantity of plant material available, the patient's age (children and adults) and the local expert. The treatment time varies from a single dose to up to several weeks. Most anti-malarial plants are domesticated or grow spontaneously. They are grown in home gardens, open areas near the communities, clearings and secondary forests, and wild species grow in areas of seasonally flooded wetlands and terra firme ('solid ground') forest, in some cases in locations that are hard to access. Traditional knowledge of plants was found to be falling into disuse presumably as a consequence of the local official health services that treat malaria in the communities using commercial drugs. Despite this, some species are used in the prevention of this disease and also in the recovery after using conventional anti-malarial drugs.
authors.affiliation: Coordenação de Tecnologia e Inovação, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia, Avenida André Araújo, 2936, Petrópolis, CEP 69067-375 Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil. Electronic address: ginafrausin@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Gina
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Frausin
authors.affiliation: Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias, Universidade Federal do Amazonas, Avenida General Rodrigo Otávio Jordão Ramos, 6200, Coroado I, CEP 69077-000 Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil. Electronic address: afreitash@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Ari de Freitas
authors.initials: Ade F
authors.lastname: Hidalgo
authors.affiliation: Programa de Pós-graduação em Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Amazonas, Avenida General Rodrigo Otavio Jordão Ramos, 6200, Coroado I, CEP 69077-000 Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil. Electronic address: renatabsl@hotmail.com.
authors.forename: Renata Braga Souza
authors.initials: RB
authors.lastname: Lima
authors.affiliation: Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Amazonas, Avenida Ferreira Pena, 1109, Centro, CEP 69025-010 Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil. Electronic address: valkinupp@yahoo.com.br.
authors.forename: Valdely Ferreira
authors.initials: VF
authors.lastname: Kinupp
authors.affiliation: Faculdade de Ciências Agronômicas, Universidade Estadual Paulista "Júlio de Mesquita Filho", Fazenda Experimental Lageado, Rua José Barbosa de Barros, 1780, Caixa Postal 237, CEP 18610-307 Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil. Electronic address: linming@fca.unesp.br.
authors.forename: Lin Chau
authors.initials: LC
authors.lastname: Ming
authors.affiliation: Coordenação de Tecnologia e Inovação, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia, Avenida André Araújo, 2936, Petrópolis, CEP 69067-375 Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil. Electronic address: ampohlit@inpa.gov.br.
authors.forename: Adrian Martin
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Pohlit
authors.affiliation: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3AB, UK. Electronic address: w.milliken@kew.org.
authors.forename: William
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Milliken
mesh_terms: D032421:Ampelopsis; D000962:Antimalarials / Q000302:isolation & purification / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D030009:Aspidosperma; D001938:Brazil / Q000208:ethnology; D019448:Ethnobotany / Q000379:methods*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007199:Indians, South American / Q000208:ethnology*; D008288:Malaria / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000208:ethnology*; D008297:Male; D010946:Plants, Medicinal; D045483:Rivers; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires
chemical_list: D000962:Antimalarials
keywords: Amerindian traditional knowledge; Ampelozizyphus amazonicus; Anti-malarial activity; Antiplasmodial activity; Aspidosperma spp.; Santa Isabel do Rio Negro