title: Course of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 40 Years After the Vietnam War: Findings From the National Vietnam Veterans Longitudinal Study.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The long-term course of readjustment problems in military personnel has not been evaluated in a nationally representative sample. The National Vietnam Veterans Longitudinal Study (NVVLS) is a congressionally mandated assessment of Vietnam veterans who underwent previous assessment in the National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study (NVVRS).
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To determine the prevalence, course, and comorbidities of war-zone posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) across a 25-year interval.
  
  
  METHODS
  The NVVLS survey consisted of a self-report health questionnaire (n = 1409), a computer-assisted telephone survey health interview (n = 1279), and a telephone clinical interview (n = 400) in a representative national sample of veterans who served in the Vietnam theater of operations (theater veterans) from July 3, 2012, through May 17, 2013. Of 2348 NVVRS participants, 1920 were alive at the outset of the NVVLS, and 81 died during recruitment; 1450 of the remaining 1839 (78.8%) participated in at least 1 NVVLS study phase. Data analysis was performed from May 18, 2013, through January 9, 2015, with further analyses continued through April 13, 2015.
  
  
  METHODS
  Study instruments included the Mississippi Scale for Combat-Related PTSD, PTSD Checklist for DSM-IV supplemented with PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 items (PCL-5+), Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5 (CAPS-5), and Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV, Nonpatient Version.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Among male theater veterans, we estimated a prevalence (95% CI) of 4.5% (1.7%-7.3%) based on CAPS-5 criteria for a current PTSD diagnosis; 10.8% (6.5%-15.1%) based on CAPS-5 full plus subthreshold PTSD; and 11.2% (8.3%-14.2%) based on PCL-5+ criteria for current war-zone PTSD. Among female veterans, estimates were 6.1% (1.8%-10.3%), 8.7% (3.8%-13.6%), and 6.6% (3.5%-9.6%), respectively. The PCL-5+ prevalence (95% CI) of current non-war-zone PTSD was 4.6% (2.6%-6.6%) in male and 5.1% (2.3%-8.0%) in female theater veterans. Comorbid major depression occurred in 36.7% (95% CI, 6.2%-67.2%) of veterans with current war-zone PTSD. With regard to the course of PTSD, 16.0% of theater veterans reported an increase and 7.6% reported a decrease of greater than 20 points in Mississippi Scale for Combat-Related PTSD symptoms. The prevalence (95% CI) of current PCL-5+-derived PTSD in study respondents was 1.2% (0.0%-3.0%) for male and 3.9% (0.0%-8.1%) for female Vietnam veterans.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Approximately 271,000 Vietnam theater veterans have current full PTSD plus subthreshold war-zone PTSD, one-third of whom have current major depressive disorder, 40 or more years after the war. These findings underscore the need for mental health services for many decades for veterans with PTSD symptoms.
authors.affiliation: Steven and Alexandra Cohen Veterans Center for Posttraumatic Stress and Traumatic Brain Injury, Department of Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York.
authors.forename: Charles R
authors.initials: CR
authors.lastname: Marmar
authors.affiliation: Abt Associates Inc, Durham, North Carolina.
authors.forename: William
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Schlenger
authors.affiliation: Steven and Alexandra Cohen Veterans Center for Posttraumatic Stress and Traumatic Brain Injury, Department of Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York.
authors.forename: Clare
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Henn-Haase
authors.affiliation: Steven and Alexandra Cohen Veterans Center for Posttraumatic Stress and Traumatic Brain Injury, Department of Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York.
authors.forename: Meng
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Qian
authors.affiliation: Steven and Alexandra Cohen Veterans Center for Posttraumatic Stress and Traumatic Brain Injury, Department of Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York.
authors.forename: Emily
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Purchia
authors.affiliation: Steven and Alexandra Cohen Veterans Center for Posttraumatic Stress and Traumatic Brain Injury, Department of Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York.
authors.forename: Meng
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Li
authors.affiliation: Abt Associates Inc, Durham, North Carolina.
authors.forename: Nida
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Corry
authors.affiliation: Abt Associates Inc, Durham, North Carolina.
authors.forename: Christianna S
authors.initials: CS
authors.lastname: Williams
authors.affiliation: Abt Associates Inc, Durham, North Carolina.
authors.forename: Chia-Lin
authors.initials: CL
authors.lastname: Ho
authors.affiliation: Steven and Alexandra Cohen Veterans Center for Posttraumatic Stress and Traumatic Brain Injury, Department of Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York3Department of Psychology, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.
authors.forename: Danny
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Horesh
authors.affiliation: Steven and Alexandra Cohen Veterans Center for Posttraumatic Stress and Traumatic Brain Injury, Department of Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York4Department of Psychology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense.
authors.forename: Karen-Inge
authors.initials: KI
authors.lastname: Karstoft
authors.affiliation: Steven and Alexandra Cohen Veterans Center for Posttraumatic Stress and Traumatic Brain Injury, Department of Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York3Department of Psychology, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.
authors.forename: Arieh
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Shalev
authors.affiliation: currently an independent consultant, Raleigh, North Carolina.
authors.forename: Richard A
authors.initials: RA
authors.lastname: Kulka
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D000437:Alcoholism / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000523:psychology; D015331:Cohort Studies; D003130:Combat Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000523:psychology; D015897:Comorbidity; D003865:Major Depressive Disorder / Q000453:epidemiology*; D018450:Disease Progression; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D015995:Prevalence; D013313:Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000523:psychology; D019966:Substance-Related Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000523:psychology; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D014728:Veterans / Q000523:psychology / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D047829:Vietnam Conflict