title: Identification and management of tardive dyskinesia: A case series and literature review.
abstract: Tardive dyskinesia (TD) is a serious, disabling and potentially permanent, neurological hyperkinetic movement disorder that occurs after months or years of taking dopamine receptor-blocking agents. The pathophysiology of TD is complex, multifactorial and still not fully understood. Although there is no identified effective and standard treatment for TD, several agents have been tried for the management of this motor disturbance. The aim of this case series is to review the literature in regard to the identification, diagnosis and the treatment of TD with anticholinergics, anticholinergic medication withdrawal, cholinergic agents, botulinum toxin intramuscular injections, tetrabenazine, levetiracetam, propranolol and zolpidem, and to describe one case of TD that responded favorably to clonazepam and two cases of TD that responded favorably to Ginkgo biloba.
authors.affiliation: a The Geisel school of Medicine at Dartmouth, Dartmouth - Hitchcock Medical Center, One Medical Center Drive , Lebanon, USA.
authors.forename: Hani Raoul
authors.initials: HR
authors.lastname: Khouzam
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D018726:Anti-Dyskinesia Agents / Q000008:administration & dosage; D002998:Clonazepam / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D003937:Diagnosis, Differential; D018492:Dopamine Antagonists / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000009:adverse effects; D004409:Dyskinesia, Drug-Induced / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000209:etiology; D005260:Female; D020441:Ginkgo biloba; D006356:Heartburn / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000188:drug therapy*; D006801:Humans; D008875:Middle Aged; D009069:Movement Disorders / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000209:etiology; D010546:Perphenazine / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000009:adverse effects*; D010936:Plant Extracts / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D049268:Positron-Emission Tomography; D012720:Severity of Illness Index; D015899:Tomography, Emission-Computed, Single-Photon; D016896:Treatment Outcome
chemical_list: D018726:Anti-Dyskinesia Agents; D018492:Dopamine Antagonists; D010936:Plant Extracts; D002998:Clonazepam; D010546:Perphenazine
keywords: Antipsychotics; Ginkgo biloba; clonazepam; psychopharmacology; tardive dyskinesia