title: Acute and Long-Term Impact of Chemical Weapons: Lessons from the Iran-Iraq War.
abstract: Chemical weapons have given the human experience of warfare a uniquely terrifying quality that has inspired a general repugnance and led to periodic attempts to ban their use. Nevertheless, since ancient times, toxic agents have been consistently employed to kill and terrorize target populations. The evolution of these weapons is examined here in ways that may allow military, law enforcement, and scientific professionals to gain a perspective on conditions that, in the past, have motivated their use - both criminally and as a matter of national policy during military campaigns. Special emphasis is placed on the genocidal use of chemical weapons by the regime of Saddam Hussein, both against Iranians and on Kurdish citizens of his own country, during the Iran-Iraq War of 1980-88. The historical development of chemical weapons use is summarized to show how progressively better insight into biochemistry and physiology was adapted to this form of warfare. Major attributes of the most frequently used chemical agents and a description of how they affected military campaigns are explained. Portions of this review describing chemical-casualty care devote particular focus to Iranian management of neurotoxic (nerve) agent casualties due to the unique nature of this experience. Both nerve and blistering "mustard" agents were used extensively against Iranian forces. However, Iran is the only nation in history to have sustained large-scale attacks with neurotoxic weapons. For this reason, an understanding of the successes and failures of countermeasures to nerve-agent use developed by the Iranian military are particularly valuable for future civil defense and military planning. A detailed consideration of these strategies is therefore considered. Finally, the outcomes of clinical research into severe chronic disease triggered by mustard-agent exposure are examined in the context of the potential of these outcomes to determine the etiology of illness among US and Allied veterans of the 1991 Persian Gulf War.
authors.affiliation: Summative Synergy Pharmaceutical Group, Chandler, AZ, USA.|Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA.|Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology, Health Science Center, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary. david.haines@uconn.edu.
authors.forename: D D
authors.initials: DD
authors.lastname: Haines
authors.affiliation: QueenBeeEdit, Bloomfield, CT, USA.
authors.forename: S C
authors.initials: SC
authors.lastname: Fox
keywords: Acetylcholine; BZ; acetylcholinesterase; adamsite; anticholinergic; arsenic; biological; bromoacetate; bronchospasm; cancer; carbamates; central apnea; chemical; chloroacetone; cholinergic effects; cholinesterases; cyclosarin; exposure; methyl isocyanate; miosis; mustard; oxime; oxime-phosphonate; parasympatholytic; phosgene; psychotropic; sarin; soman; status epilepticus; sulfide; tabun; verdigris; weaponized; weapons