title: The Case of Pharmacological Neuroenhancement: Medical, Judicial and Ethical Aspects from a German Perspective.
abstract: Pharmacological neuroenhancement (PN) describes the use of psychoactive drugs for the purpose of enhancing cognition (e. g., fatigue, concentration, memory etc.) by healthy subjects without medical need. Drugs used for this purpose can be divided into freely available, over-the-counter drugs (e. g., methylxanthines such as caffeine), prescription drugs (e. g., antidementia drugs, methylphenidate) and illicit drugs (e. g., illicit amphetamines). Clinical studies have shown that the aforementioned substances only have limited pro-cognitive effects and have considerable safety risks and side effects.The German judicial perspective shows legal differences between substances (drugs, food, food supplements, fortified food) that can be bought in a supermarket, drugs that can be bought in a pharmacy as over-the-counter- (OTC-) drugs, drugs with or without the need for a prescription and illicit drugs. Supermarket drugs and fortified food can be sold freely and follow the general rules of civil and penal law; regarding acquisition, parents are responsible for their children. OTC drugs require special information about therapy. Regarding prescription drugs, there are legal problems caused by an off-label use and the non-medical purposes of PN drugs. Furthermore, prescription stimulants for PN are governed by the specialized law for narcotics, and their use might be punished. Beyond the general lack of rules for regulation for PN drug use there are specific needs for prevention (e. g., control of the black market, etc.).Possible future policy will depend, among others, on the probability with which effective PN drugs with an acceptable risk-benefit ratio will be available, on individual and societal implications, and on public opinion towards PN. While 4 different general policy scenarios can be identified, it is important to advance a broad societal debate on PN to collect relevant empirical data and to address enhancement-related conceptual issues.
authors.affiliation: Department of Social Work and Education, University of Neubrandenburg (University of Applied Sciences), Neubrandenburg, Germany.
authors.forename: A G
authors.initials: AG
authors.lastname: Franke
authors.affiliation: Department of Social Work and Education, University of Neubrandenburg (University of Applied Sciences), Neubrandenburg, Germany.
authors.forename: R
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Northoff
authors.affiliation: Illinois Institute of Technology, Center for the Study of Ethics in the Professions, Chicago, USA.
authors.forename: E
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Hildt
mesh_terms: D002110:Caffeine / Q000494:pharmacology; D000697:Central Nervous System Stimulants / Q000494:pharmacology*; D003071:Cognition / Q000187:drug effects*; D006801:Humans; D004366:Nonprescription Drugs / Q000494:pharmacology*; D056687:Off-Label Use; D011619:Psychotropic Drugs / Q000494:pharmacology*
chemical_list: D000697:Central Nervous System Stimulants; D004366:Nonprescription Drugs; D011619:Psychotropic Drugs; D002110:Caffeine