title: Three-dimensional printing in surgery: a review of current surgical applications.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Three-dimensional printing (3DP) is gaining increasing recognition as a technique that will transform the landscape of surgical practice. It allows for the rapid conversion of anatomic images into physical objects, which are being used across a variety of surgical specialties. It has been unclear which groups are leading the way in coming up with novel ways of using the technology and what specifically the technology is being used for. The aim of this article was to review the current applications of 3DP in modern surgical practice.
  
  
  METHODS
  An electronic search was carried out in MEDLINE, EMBASE, and PsycINFO for terms related to 3DP. These were then screened for relevance and practical applications of the technology in surgery.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Four hundred eighty-eight articles were initially found, and these were eventually narrowed down to 93 full-text articles. It was determined that there were three main areas in which the technology is being used to print: (1) anatomic models, (2) surgical instruments, and (3) implants and prostheses.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Different specialties are at different stages in the use of the technology. The costs involved with implementing the technology and time taken for printing are important factors to consider before widespread use. For the foreseeable future, this is an exciting and interesting technology with the capacity to radically change health care and revolutionize modern surgery.
authors.affiliation: Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, South Kensington Campus, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Hammad H
authors.initials: HH
authors.lastname: Malik
authors.affiliation: Department of Undergraduate Medicine, School of Medicine Education Centre B81A, Queen's Medical Centre, University of Nottingham Medical School, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Alastair R J
authors.initials: AR
authors.lastname: Darwood
authors.affiliation: Department of Trauma and Orthopaedics, St George's Hospital, St George's Healthcare NHS Trust, London, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Shalin
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Shaunak
authors.affiliation: Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, South Kensington Campus, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Priyantha
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Kulatilake
authors.affiliation: Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, South Kensington Campus, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Abdulrahman A
authors.initials: AA
authors.lastname: El-Hilly
authors.affiliation: Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, St Mary's Hospital, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Omar
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Mulki
authors.affiliation: Department of Trauma and Orthopaedics, St Mary's Hospital, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, United Kingdom. Electronic address: aroon@doctors.org.uk.
authors.forename: Aroon
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Baskaradas
mesh_terms: D013502:General Surgery / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D066330:Printing, Three-Dimensional
keywords: Drill guide; Education; Operative template; Patient-specific implants; Surgery; Three-dimensional printing; Training