title: Opponent Identity Influences Value Learning in Simple Games.
abstract: Context plays a pivotal role in many decision-making scenarios, including social interactions wherein the identities and strategies of other decision makers often shape our behaviors. However, the neural mechanisms for tracking such contextual information are poorly understood. Here, we investigated how opponent identity affects human reinforcement learning during a simulated competitive game against two independent computerized opponents. We found that strategies of participants were affected preferentially by the outcomes of the previous interactions with the same opponent. In addition, reinforcement signals from the previous trial were less discriminable throughout the brain after the opponent changed, compared with when the same opponent was repeated. These opponent-selective reinforcement signals were particularly robust in right rostral anterior cingulate and right lingual regions, where opponent-selective reinforcement signals correlated with a behavioral measure of opponent-selective reinforcement learning. Therefore, when choices involve multiple contextual frames, such as different opponents in a game, decision making and its neural correlates are influenced by multithreaded histories of reinforcement. Overall, our findings are consistent with the availability of temporally overlapping, context-specific reinforcement signals.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  In real-world decision making, context plays a strong role in determining the value of an action. Similar choices take on different values depending on setting. We examined the contextual dependence of reward-based learning and reinforcement signals using a simple two-choice matching-pennies game played by humans against two independent computer opponents that were randomly interleaved. We found that human subjects' strategies were highly dependent on opponent context in this game, a fact that was reflected in select brain regions' activity (rostral anterior cingulate and lingual cortex). These results indicate that human reinforcement histories are highly dependent on contextual factors, a fact that is reflected in neural correlates of reinforcement signals.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, tvickery@psych.udel.edu.
authors.forename: Timothy J
authors.identifier: http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1423-8223
authors.initials: TJ
authors.lastname: Vickery
authors.affiliation: Department of Neurobiology.
authors.forename: Matthew R
authors.initials: MR
authors.lastname: Kleinman
authors.affiliation: Department of Neurobiology, Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510, and Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520.
authors.forename: Marvin M
authors.initials: MM
authors.lastname: Chun
authors.affiliation: Department of Neurobiology, Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510, and Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520.
authors.forename: Daeyeol
authors.identifier: http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3474-019X
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Lee
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D002540:Cerebral Cortex / Q000502:physiology*; D003657:Decision Making / Q000502:physiology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007858:Learning / Q000502:physiology*; D008279:Magnetic Resonance Imaging; D008297:Male; D012054:Reinforcement, Psychology; D055815:Young Adult
keywords: decision making; fMRI; games; reinforcement