title: Spontaneous hepatic haemorrhage: a review of pathogenesis, aetiology and treatment.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  A spontaneous hepatic haemorrhage (SHH) is a rare condition that presents acutely to both hepatobiliary and general surgeons. Management of the condition is challenging because of the emergent presentation requiring immediate intervention, the presence of underlying chronic liver disease and the multiple potential underlying aetiological conditions.
  
  
  METHODS
  A literature search on a spontaneous hepatic haemorrhage was instituted on Medline (1966-2014), Cochrane Register of Controlled Trials, EMBASE (1947-2014), PubMed, Web of Science and Google Scholar. The specific topics of interest were causes - including rare causes, pathophysiological mechanisms and management options. A narrative review was planned from the outset.
  
  
  RESULTS
  After 1546 abstracts were reviewed, 74 studies were chosen for inclusion. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the commonest cause of a spontaneous haemorrhage with 10% of HCC presenting with bleeding. Other causes are benign hepatic lesions (hemangioma, adenoma, focal nodular hyperplasia, nodular regenerative hyperplasia, biliary cystadenoma and angiomyelolipoma), malignant hepatic tumours (angiosarcoma, haemangioendothelioma, hepatoblastoma and rhabdoid sarcoma), peliosis hepatis, amyloid, systemic lupus erythematosis, polyarteritis nodosa, HELLP syndrome and acute fatty liver of pregnancy. Treatment practice emphasizes arterial embolization to obtain haemostasis with a hepatectomy reserved for tumour-bearing patients after staging and assessment of liver function.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  A spontaneous hepatic haemorrhage is an acute presentation of a spectrum of conditions that requires early diagnosis and multidisciplinary management.
authors.affiliation: The Department of Surgery, North Shore Hospital, Takapuna, Auckland, New Zealand.
authors.forename: Sanket
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Srinivasa
authors.affiliation: The Department of Surgery, North Shore Hospital, Takapuna, Auckland, New Zealand.
authors.forename: Wai G
authors.initials: WG
authors.lastname: Lee
authors.affiliation: The Department of Surgery, North Shore Hospital, Takapuna, Auckland, New Zealand.
authors.forename: Ali
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Aldameh
authors.affiliation: The Department of Surgery, North Shore Hospital, Takapuna, Auckland, New Zealand.
authors.forename: Jonathan B
authors.initials: JB
authors.lastname: Koea
mesh_terms: D003952:Diagnostic Imaging / Q000379:methods*; D006470:Hemorrhage / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000209:etiology / Q000628:therapy; D006489:Hemostatic Techniques; D006801:Humans; D008107:Liver Diseases / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000209:etiology / Q000628:therapy; D008113:Liver Neoplasms / Q000601:surgery