title: Evaluating noninvasive markers of nonhuman primate immune activation and inflammation.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Health, disease, and immune function are key areas of research in studies of ecology and evolution, but work on free-ranging primates has been inhibited by a lack of direct noninvasive measures of condition. Here, we evaluate the potential usefulness of noninvasive measurement of three biomarkers, the acute-phase proteins C-reactive protein (CRP) and haptoglobin, and neopterin, a by-product of macrophage activity.
  
  
  METHODS
  We took advantage of veterinary checks on captive rhesus (24) and long-tailed (3) macaques at the German Primate Center (DPZ) to analyze serum marker measures, before measuring concentrations in feces and urine, and evaluating relationships between matched serum, urine, and fecal concentrations. In a second study, we monitored excretion of these markers in response to simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection and surgical tissue trauma, undertaken for a separate study.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We found that each biomarker could be measured in each matrix. Serum and urinary concentrations of neopterin were strongly and significantly correlated, but neither haptoglobin nor CRP concentrations in excreta proxied circulating serum concentrations. Our infection study confirmed that urinary neopterin, in particular, is a reliable marker of viral infection in macaques, but also indicated the potential of urinary and fecal CRP and haptoglobin as indicators of inflammation.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We highlight the potential of noninvasive markers of immune function, especially of urinary neopterin, which correlates strongly with serum neopterin, and is highly responsive to infection.
authors.affiliation: Department of Anthropology, New York University, 25 Waverly Place, New York, NY, 10003.|Jr Research Group "Sexual Selection", German Primate Center, Kellnerweg 4, Göttingen, 37077, Germany.
authors.forename: James P
authors.initials: JP
authors.lastname: Higham
authors.affiliation: Department of Sociobiology/Anthropology, University of Göttingen, Kellnerweg 6, Göttingen, 37077, Germany.
authors.forename: Cornelia
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Kraus
authors.affiliation: Unit of Infection Models, German Primate Center, Kellnerweg 4, Göttingen, 37077, Germany.
authors.forename: Christiane
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Stahl-Hennig
authors.affiliation: Jr Research Group "Sexual Selection", German Primate Center, Kellnerweg 4, Göttingen, 37077, Germany.
authors.forename: Antje
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Engelhardt
authors.affiliation: Division of Biological Chemistry, Biocenter Innsbruck Medical University, Center for Chemistry and Biomedicine, Innrain 80, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria.
authors.forename: Dietmar
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Fuchs
authors.affiliation: Endocrinology Laboratory, German Primate Center, Kellnerweg 4, 37077, Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Heistermann
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000032:analysis*; D002097:C-Reactive Protein / Q000032:analysis; D005243:Feces / Q000737:chemistry; D005260:Female; D007249:Inflammation; D008253:Macaca mulatta / Q000276:immunology*; D008297:Male; D019798:Neopterin / Q000652:urine; D016097:Simian Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome / Q000276:immunology
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D019798:Neopterin; D002097:C-Reactive Protein
keywords: body condition; disease; feces; health; urine