title: An investigation into inter- and intragenomic variations of graphic genomic signatures.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Motivated by the general need to identify and classify species based on molecular evidence, genome comparisons have been proposed that are based on measuring mostly Euclidean distances between Chaos Game Representation (CGR) patterns of genomic DNA sequences.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We provide, on an extensive dataset and using several different distances, confirmation of the hypothesis that CGR patterns are preserved along a genomic DNA sequence, and are different for DNA sequences originating from genomes of different species. This finding lends support to the theory that CGRs of genomic sequences can act as graphic genomic signatures. In particular, we compare the CGR patterns of over five hundred different 150,000 bp genomic sequences spanning one complete chromosome from each of six organisms, representing all kingdoms of life: H. sapiens (Animalia; chromosome 21), S. cerevisiae (Fungi; chromosome 4), A. thaliana (Plantae; chromosome 1), P. falciparum (Protista; chromosome 14), E. coli (Bacteria - full genome), and P. furiosus (Archaea - full genome). To maximize the diversity within each species, we also analyze the interrelationships within a set of over five hundred 150,000 bp genomic sequences sampled from the entire aforementioned genomes. Lastly, we provide some preliminary evidence of this method's ability to classify genomic DNA sequences at lower taxonomic levels by comparing sequences sampled from the entire genome of H. sapiens (class Mammalia, order Primates) and of M. musculus (class Mammalia, order Rodentia), for a total length of approximately 174 million basepairs analyzed. We compute pairwise distances between CGRs of these genomic sequences using six different distances, and construct Molecular Distance Maps, which visualize all sequences as points in a two-dimensional or three-dimensional space, to simultaneously display their interrelationships.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our analysis confirms, for this dataset, that CGR patterns of DNA sequences from the same genome are in general quantitatively similar, while being different for DNA sequences from genomes of different species. Our assessment of the performance of the six distances analyzed uses three different quality measures and suggests that several distances outperform the Euclidean distance, which has so far been almost exclusively used for such studies.
authors.affiliation: Department of Computer Science, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada. rkaramic@uwo.ca.
authors.forename: Rallis
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Karamichalis
authors.affiliation: Department of Computer Science, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada. lila.kari@uwo.ca.
authors.forename: Lila
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Kari
authors.affiliation: Department of Mathematics and Computing Science, Saint Mary's University, Halifax, NS, Canada. s.konstantinidis@smu.ca.
authors.forename: Stavros
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Konstantinidis
authors.affiliation: Department of Computer Science, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada. steffen@csd.uwo.ca.|Department of Mathematics and Computing Science, Saint Mary's University, Halifax, NS, Canada. steffen@csd.uwo.ca.
authors.forename: Steffen
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Kopecki
mesh_terms: D000465:Algorithms; D000818:Animals; D017360:Arabidopsis / Q000235:genetics; D003196:Computer Graphics; D004247:DNA / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000235:genetics*; D004926:Escherichia coli / Q000235:genetics; D016678:Genome; D023281:Genomics / Q000379:methods*; D006801:Humans; D010963:Plasmodium falciparum / Q000235:genetics; D012441:Saccharomyces cerevisiae / Q000235:genetics; D017422:Sequence Analysis, DNA / Q000379:methods*
chemical_list: D004247:DNA