title: National multi-cohort time trends in adolescent risk preference and the relation with substance use and problem behavior from 1976 to 2011.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Preference for risky activities is an important developmentally graded predictor of substance use. Population-level trends in adolescent risk preference, as well as the way in which risk preference may be a conduit to risk behavior, have never been documented. The present study examines population-level trends in risk preference among U.S. high school seniors for the 36 years from 1976 to 2011, as well as trends in the association between risk preference and substance use and other problem behaviors.
  
  
  METHODS
  Data were drawn from yearly nationally representative cross-sectional surveys of US high school seniors (N=91,860). Risk preference was measured consistently with two items. Marijuana and cocaine use, binge drinking, and conduct problems were assessed. Trends were tested using JoinPoint software.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The mean level of reported risk preference among US 12th graders has increased over time, especially in the 1980s. For example, the proportion of high school females who reported enjoying activities that were "a little dangerous" more than doubled, from 4.9% in 1976 to 10.8% in 1988. While risk preference reports among adolescent males leveled off in 1992, risk preference reports among females show a continued positive overall slope through 2011. The magnitude of the association between risk preference and marijuana use has increased over time.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Reported preference for risky activities has increased among adolescents in the US, especially among young women. Reported risk preference is increasingly associated with a higher use of marijuana. Our findings argue for the importance of placing risk preference within a multi-level framework that attends to historical variation.
authors.affiliation: Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States.
authors.forename: Katherine M
authors.initials: KM
authors.lastname: Keyes
authors.affiliation: T. Denny Sanford School of Social and Family Dynamics, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States.
authors.forename: Justin
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Jager
authors.affiliation: Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States.
authors.forename: Ava
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Hamilton
authors.affiliation: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.
authors.forename: Patrick M
authors.initials: PM
authors.lastname: O'Malley
authors.affiliation: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.
authors.forename: Richard
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Miech
authors.affiliation: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States; Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.
authors.forename: John E
authors.initials: JE
authors.lastname: Schulenberg
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000294:Adolescent Behavior / Q000523:psychology*; D000428:Alcohol Drinking / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000639:trends*; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008385:Marijuana Smoking / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000523:psychology; D000066553:Problem Behavior / Q000523:psychology*; D012309:Risk-Taking; D012574:Schools; D012737:Sex Factors; D013334:Students / Q000523:psychology / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D019966:Substance-Related Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000523:psychology*; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology
keywords: Adolescence; Alcohol; Cocaine; Conduct disorder; Marijuana; Risk preference; Sensation seeking; Time trends