title: Biomechanical Basis of Shoulder Osseous Deformity and Contracture in a Rat Model of Brachial Plexus Birth Palsy.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The purpose of this study was to investigate the relative contributions of two proposed mechanisms, strength imbalance and impaired longitudinal muscle growth, to osseous and postural deformity in a rat model of brachial plexus birth palsy (BPBP).
  
  
  METHODS
  Thirty-two Sprague-Dawley rat pups were divided into four groups on the basis of surgical interventions to induce a strength imbalance, impaired growth, both a strength imbalance and impaired growth (a combined mechanism), and a sham condition in the left forelimb. Maximum passive external shoulder rotation angle (ERmax) was measured bilaterally at four and eight weeks postoperatively. After the rats were killed at eight weeks, the glenohumeral geometry (on microcomputed tomography) and shoulder muscle architecture properties were measured bilaterally.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Bilateral muscle mass and optimal length differences were greatest in the impaired growth and combined mechanism groups, which also exhibited >15° lower ERmax (p < 0.05; four weeks postoperatively), 14° to 18° more glenoid declination (p < 0.10), and 0.76 to 0.94 mm more inferior humeral head translation (p < 0.10) on the affected side. Across all four groups, optimal muscle length was significantly correlated with at least one osseous deformity measure for six of fourteen muscle compartments crossing the shoulder on the affected side (p < 0.05). In the strength imbalance group, the glenoid was 5° more inclined and the humeral head was translated 7.5% more posteriorly on the affected side (p < 0.05).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Impaired longitudinal muscle growth and shoulder deformity were most pronounced in the impaired growth and combined mechanism groups, which underwent neurectomy. Strength imbalance was associated with osseous deformity to a lesser extent.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Treatments to alleviate shoulder deformity should address mechanical effects of both strength imbalance and impaired longitudinal muscle growth, with an emphasis on developing new treatments to promote growth in muscles affected by BPBP.
authors.affiliation: UNC-NCSU Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, North Carolina State University, 911 Oval Drive, Engineering Building 3, Campus Box 7115, Raleigh, NC 27695. E-mail address: dlcrouch@ncsu.edu.
authors.forename: Dustin L
authors.initials: DL
authors.lastname: Crouch
authors.affiliation: Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Rehabilitation, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Medical Center Boulevard, Winston-Salem, NC 27103. E-mail address for I.D. Hutchinson: ihutchin@wakehealth.edu. E-mail address for J.F. Plate: jplate@wakehealth.edu. E-mail address for Z. Li: zli@wakehealth.edu.
authors.forename: Ian D
authors.initials: ID
authors.lastname: Hutchinson
authors.affiliation: Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Rehabilitation, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Medical Center Boulevard, Winston-Salem, NC 27103. E-mail address for I.D. Hutchinson: ihutchin@wakehealth.edu. E-mail address for J.F. Plate: jplate@wakehealth.edu. E-mail address for Z. Li: zli@wakehealth.edu.
authors.forename: Johannes F
authors.initials: JF
authors.lastname: Plate
authors.affiliation: Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, 911 Oval Drive, Engineering Building 3, Campus Box 7910, Raleigh, NC 27695. E-mail address for J. Antoniono: jmantoni@ncsu.edu. E-mail address for K.R. Saul: ksaul@ncsu.edu.
authors.forename: Jennifer
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Antoniono
authors.affiliation: Virginia Tech-Wake Forest School of Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Kelly Hall, 325 Stanger Street, MC 0298, Blacksburg, VA 24061. E-mail address for H. Gong: haog1@vt.edu. E-mail address for G. Cao: ghcao@vt.edu.
authors.forename: Hao
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Gong
authors.affiliation: Virginia Tech-Wake Forest School of Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Kelly Hall, 325 Stanger Street, MC 0298, Blacksburg, VA 24061. E-mail address for H. Gong: haog1@vt.edu. E-mail address for G. Cao: ghcao@vt.edu.
authors.forename: Guohua
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Cao
authors.affiliation: Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Rehabilitation, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Medical Center Boulevard, Winston-Salem, NC 27103. E-mail address for I.D. Hutchinson: ihutchin@wakehealth.edu. E-mail address for J.F. Plate: jplate@wakehealth.edu. E-mail address for Z. Li: zli@wakehealth.edu.
authors.forename: Zhongyu
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Li
authors.affiliation: Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, 911 Oval Drive, Engineering Building 3, Campus Box 7910, Raleigh, NC 27695. E-mail address for J. Antoniono: jmantoni@ncsu.edu. E-mail address for K.R. Saul: ksaul@ncsu.edu.
authors.forename: Katherine R
authors.initials: KR
authors.lastname: Saul
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000831:Animals, Newborn; D001696:Biomechanical Phenomena; D001720:Birth Injuries / Q000150:complications; D020516:Brachial Plexus Neuropathies / Q000150:complications* / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000601:surgery; D003286:Contracture / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000209:etiology / Q000601:surgery; D004195:Disease Models, Animal; D005260:Female; D016916:Joint Deformities, Acquired / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging* / Q000209:etiology / Q000601:surgery; D008297:Male; D018482:Muscle, Skeletal / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000254:growth & development*; D016059:Range of Motion, Articular / Q000502:physiology*; D051381:Rats; D012680:Sensitivity and Specificity; D012785:Shoulder Joint / Q000002:abnormalities / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging* / Q000601:surgery; D055114:X-Ray Microtomography / Q000379:methods