Evolution of endemism on a young tropical mountain.
Tropical mountains are hot spots of biodiversity and endemism, but the evolutionary origins of their unique biotas are poorly understood. In varying degrees, local and regional extinction, long-distance colonization, and local recruitment may all contribute to the exceptional character of these communities. Also, it is debated whether mountain endemics mostly originate from local lowland taxa, or from lineages that reach the mountain by long-range dispersal from cool localities elsewhere. Here we investigate the evolutionary routes to endemism by sampling an entire tropical mountain biota on the 4,095-metre-high Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, East Malaysia. We discover that most of its unique biodiversity is younger than the mountain itself (6 million years), and comprises a mix of immigrant pre-adapted lineages and descendants from local lowland ancestors, although substantial shifts from lower to higher vegetation zones in this latter group were rare. These insights could improve forecasts of the likelihood of extinction and 'evolutionary rescue' in montane biodiversity hot spots under climate change scenarios.
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.|Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands.
Vincent S F T
VS
Merckx
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.|Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, Nijenborg 7, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands.
Kasper P
KP
Hendriks
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.
Kevin K
KK
Beentjes
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.
Constantijn B
CB
Mennes
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.|Wageningen University &Research centre, Marine Animal Ecology Group, PO Box 338, 6700 AH Wageningen, The Netherlands.|Department of Environmental Science, Policy, &Management, University of California Berkeley, 130 Mulford Hall #3114, Berkeley, California 94720, USA.
Leontine E
LE
Becking
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.|Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Katja T C A
KT
Peijnenburg
Institute for Tropical Biology and Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.
Aqilah
A
Afendy
Institute for Tropical Biology and Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.|Faculty of Earth Science, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Jeli Campus, Locked bag No.100, 17600 Jeli, Kelantan Darul Naim, Malaysia.
Nivaarani
N
Arumugam
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.|Department of Organismal Biology, Uppsala University, Norbyvägen 18D, 75236 Uppsala, Sweden.|Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1172 Blindern, NO-0318 Oslo, Norway.
Hugo
H
de Boer
Sabah Parks, Lot 45 &46, Level 1-5, Blok H, KK Times Square, 88806 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.
Alim
A
Biun
Sabah Parks, Lot 45 &46, Level 1-5, Blok H, KK Times Square, 88806 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.
Matsain M
MM
Buang
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.
Ping-Ping
PP
Chen
Forest Research Centre, Sabah Forestry Department, P.O. Box 1407, 90175 Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia.
Arthur Y C
AY
Chung
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.
Rory
R
Dow
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.
Frida A A
FA
Feijen
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.
Hans
H
Feijen
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.
Cobi
C
Feijen-van Soest
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.|Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands.
József
J
Geml
Wageningen University, Department of Plant Sciences, Laboratory of Molecular Biology, 6700AP Wageningen, The Netherlands.
René
R
Geurts
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.|Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands.|University of Applied Sciences Leiden, Zernikedreef 11, 2333 CK Leiden, The Netherlands.
Barbara
B
Gravendeel
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.
Peter
P
Hovenkamp
Sabah Parks, Lot 45 &46, Level 1-5, Blok H, KK Times Square, 88806 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.
Paul
P
Imbun
Faculty of Resource Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia.
Isa
I
Ipor
Botanic Garden Meise, Nieuwelaan 38, 1860 Meise, Belgium.
Steven B
SB
Janssens
Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecology, Vautierstraat 29, 1000 Brussels, Belgium.|Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Department of Biological Sciences, 195 University Avenue, Boyden Hall, Newark, New Jersey 07102, USA.
Merlijn
M
Jocqué
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.|Zoological Institute, University of Cologne, Zülpicher Strasse 47b, D-50674 Cologne, Germany.
Heike
H
Kappes
Forest Research Centre, Sabah Forestry Department, P.O. Box 1407, 90175 Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia.
Eyen
E
Khoo
Natuurmuseum Fryslân, Schoenmakersperk 2, 8911 EM Leeuwarden, The Netherlands.
Peter
P
Koomen
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.|Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands.
Frederic
F
Lens
Forest Research Centre, Sabah Forestry Department, P.O. Box 1407, 90175 Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia.
Richard J
RJ
Majapun
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.
Luis N
LN
Morgado
EEB Department, University of Connecticut, 75 N. Eagleville Road, Storrs, Connecticut 06269-3043, USA.
Suman
S
Neupane
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.
Nico
N
Nieser
Forest Research Centre, Sabah Forestry Department, P.O. Box 1407, 90175 Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia.
Joan T
JT
Pereira
Institute for Tropical Biology and Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.
Homathevi
H
Rahman
Forest Research Centre, Sabah Forestry Department, P.O. Box 1407, 90175 Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia.
Suzana
S
Sabran
Institute for Tropical Biology and Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.
Anati
A
Sawang
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.
Rachel M
RM
Schwallier
Sabah Parks, Lot 45 &46, Level 1-5, Blok H, KK Times Square, 88806 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.
Phyau-Soon
PS
Shim
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.
Harry
H
Smit
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.
Nicolien
N
Sol
Sabah Parks, Lot 45 &46, Level 1-5, Blok H, KK Times Square, 88806 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.
Maipul
M
Spait
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.
Michael
M
Stech
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.
Frank
F
Stokvis
Forest Research Centre, Sabah Forestry Department, P.O. Box 1407, 90175 Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia.
John B
JB
Sugau
Institute for Tropical Biology and Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.
Monica
M
Suleiman
Sabah Parks, Lot 45 &46, Level 1-5, Blok H, KK Times Square, 88806 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.
Sukaibin
S
Sumail
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.|School of Biological Sciences, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam Road, Hong Kong, China.|Singapore Botanic Gardens, 1 Cluny Road, 259569 Singapore, Republic of Singapore.
Daniel C
DC
Thomas
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.
Jan
J
van Tol
Sabah Parks, Lot 45 &46, Level 1-5, Blok H, KK Times Square, 88806 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.
Fred Y Y
FY
Tuh
Institute for Tropical Biology and Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.
Bakhtiar E
BE
Yahya
Sabah Parks, Lot 45 &46, Level 1-5, Blok H, KK Times Square, 88806 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.
Jamili
J
Nais
Sabah Parks, Lot 45 &46, Level 1-5, Blok H, KK Times Square, 88806 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.
Rimi
R
Repin
Sabah Parks, Lot 45 &46, Level 1-5, Blok H, KK Times Square, 88806 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.
Maklarin
M
Lakim
Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.|Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands.|Institute for Tropical Biology and Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia.
Menno
M
Schilthuizen
D000531:Altitude; D025041:Animal Migration; D000818:Animals; D058448:Biota; D057231:Climate Change; D058893:DNA Barcoding, Taxonomic; D053476:Extinction, Biological; D058865:Introduced Species / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D008296:Malaysia; D008969:Molecular Sequence Data; D010802:Phylogeny; D058974:Phylogeography; D010944:Plants / Q000145:classification / Q000235:genetics; D013997:Time Factors; D014329:Tropical Climate