title: Coxiella burnetii infections in sheep or goats: an opinionated review.
abstract: Q fever is an almost ubiquitous zoonosis caused by Coxiella burnetii, which is able to infect several animal species, as well as humans. Cattle, sheep and goats are the primary animal reservoirs. In small ruminants, infections are mostly without clinical symptoms, however, abortions and stillbirths can occur, mainly during late pregnancy. Shedding of C. burnetii occurs in feces, milk and, mostly, in placental membranes and birth fluids. During parturition of infected small ruminants, bacteria from birth products become aerosolized. Transmission to humans mainly happens through inhalation of contaminated aerosols. In the last decade, there have been several, sometimes large, human Q fever outbreaks related to sheep and goats. In this review, we describe C. burnetii infections in sheep and goats, including both advantages and disadvantages of available laboratory techniques, as pathology, different serological tests, PCR and culture to detect C. burnetii. Moreover, worldwide prevalences of C. burnetii in small ruminants are described, as well as possibilities for treatment and prevention. Prevention of shedding and subsequent environmental contamination by vaccination of sheep and goats with a phase I vaccine are possible. In addition, compulsory surveillance of C. burnetii in small ruminant farms raises awareness and hygiene measures in farms help to decrease exposure of people to the organism. Finally, this review challenges how to contain an infection of C. burnetii in small ruminants, bearing in mind possible consequences for the human population and probable interference of veterinary strategies, human risk perception and political considerations.
authors: Department of Small Ruminant Health, GD-Animal Health, Deventer, the Netherlands. Electronic address: r.vd.brom@gdanimalhealth.com.
authors: R
authors: R
authors: Van den Brom
authors: Department of R&D, GD-Animal Health, Deventer, the Netherlands.
authors: E
authors: E
authors: van Engelen
authors: Department of Bacteriology and TSE's, Central Veterinary Institute, Part of Wageningen UR, Edelhertweg 15, 8219 PH Lelystad, the Netherlands.
authors: H I J
authors: HI
authors: Roest
authors: Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands.
authors: W
authors: W
authors: van der Hoek
authors: Department of Small Ruminant Health, GD-Animal Health, Deventer, the Netherlands.
authors: P
authors: P
authors: Vellema
mesh_terms: D000034:Abortion, Veterinary / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000382:microbiology / Q000517:prevention & control; D000818:Animals; D057138:Bacterial Shedding; D016997:Coxiella burnetii / Q000472:pathogenicity* / Q000502:physiology; D004196:Disease Outbreaks / Q000517:prevention & control*; D005060:Europe / Q000453:epidemiology; D005260:Female; D015511:Goat Diseases / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000382:microbiology / Q000517:prevention & control; D006041:Goats; D006801:Humans; D011247:Pregnancy; D011778:Q Fever / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology / Q000628:therapy / Q000662:veterinary*; D012418:Ruminants / Q000382:microbiology; D012756:Sheep; D012757:Sheep Diseases / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000382:microbiology / Q000517:prevention & control; D034561:Sheep, Domestic; D015047:Zoonoses / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000382:microbiology
keywords: Coxiella burnetii; Goat; Q fever; Sheep; Zoonosis