title: Investigations into Outbreaks of Black Fly Attacks and Subsequent Avian Haemosporidians in Backyard-Type Poultry and Other Exposed Avian Species.
abstract: In late spring of 2009 and 2010, there were reports of severe black fly (Simulium spp., shown in Fig. 1) outbreaks in various counties in Mississippi, especially those in and around the Mississippi River Delta. Complaints were of black flies attacking multiple species of backyard poultry and causing high morbidity and mortality in affected flocks. At several affected locations, black flies were readily observed swarming around and feeding on birds. A large number of these parasites were easily trapped on fly strips (Fig. 2). Multifocal to coalescing cutaneous hemorrhagic lesions, consistent with fly bites, were seen on the birds. Upon necropsy examination, a large number of black flies were also observed in the digestive tract (Fig. 3). Although black flies may cause disease directly, such as cardiopulmonary collapse and anaphylactoid reactions, detection of Leucocytozoon in blood smears (Fig. 4) of affected birds prompted further investigations of this protozoan as a cause of disease. Leucocytozoon spp. are known to be transmitted by black flies and may be associated with morbidity and mortality in birds such as poultry. From June 2009 through July 2012, the investigation included a total collection of 1068 individual blood samples, representing 371 individual premises in 89 counties/parishes across Mississippi (59), Alabama (10), Louisiana (4), and Tennessee (16). Of the 371 premises where blood samples were collected, 96 (26%) were either positive or highly suspected to be positive for Leucocytozoon spp. by blood smear analysis, and 5 (1.2%) were positive for Haemoproteus spp. by blood smear analysis. Attempts to diagnose Leucocytozoon spp. by PCR analysis and sequencing were complicated by coinfections with two closely related haemosporidians (Haemoproteus spp. and Plasmodium spp.). A novel technique involving flow cytometry was also explored. This study discusses the black fly field outbreak, the involvement of haemosporidians, molecular methods for detection of both the black flies and blood parasites, and initial attempts at flow cytometry.
authors: Kelli
authors: K
authors: Jones
authors: Nora
authors: N
authors: Johnson
authors: Sharon
authors: S
authors: Yang
authors: John
authors: J
authors: Stokes
authors: Whitney
authors: W
authors: Smith
authors: Robert
authors: R
authors: Wills
authors: Jerome
authors: J
authors: Goddard
authors: Andrea
authors: A
authors: Varela-Stokes
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D016787:Haemosporida / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D007299:Insect Bites and Stings / Q000453:epidemiology*; D008922:Mississippi / Q000453:epidemiology; D011200:Poultry; D011201:Poultry Diseases / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000469:parasitology*; D011529:Protozoan Infections, Animal / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000469:parasitology*; D012843:Simuliidae