title: Fluorescent nanoparticles for the accurate detection of drug delivery.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The application of intravenously administered nanoparticle (NP) therapies is increasingly being explored for a variety of diseases. The key to their success lies in a thorough understanding of nanoparticle pharmacological behavior, specificity and elimination kinetics. Fluorescent imaging techniques provide exciting opportunities to gain insight into such NP behavior in complex biological systems, at macroscopic as well as microscopic levels.
  
  
  METHODS
  In this review, we will summarize NP labeling methods in relation to their established and emerging fluorescent imaging modalities for in vitro, in vivo, and ex vivo studies of NP behavior. We will highlight novel applications and discuss recent developments in techniques such as fluorescence molecular tomography (FMT), Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET), and Raman imaging. Finally, we will provide a perspective on the challenges and future directions of NP-based fluorescent labeling and imaging in nanotherapeutics.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Commonly used in preclinical applications, fluorescent imaging of NPs can be achieved with minimal invasiveness and low toxicity in a multiplex fashion. Increasingly applied in the study of NP biodistribution, dissociation, and elimination behavior, fluorescent imaging allows fluid longitudinal tracking and visualization of NP interactions at the level of the whole animal, target organs/tissues, and individual cells.
authors: a 1 Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai , New York, New York 10029, USA willem.mulder@mssm.edu.
authors: Bram
authors: B
authors: Priem
authors: a 1 Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai , New York, New York 10029, USA willem.mulder@mssm.edu.
authors: Cheng
authors: C
authors: Tian
authors: a 1 Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai , New York, New York 10029, USA willem.mulder@mssm.edu.
authors: Jun
authors: J
authors: Tang
authors: a 1 Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai , New York, New York 10029, USA willem.mulder@mssm.edu.
authors: Yiming
authors: Y
authors: Zhao
authors: a 1 Translational and Molecular Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai , New York, New York 10029, USA willem.mulder@mssm.edu.|b 2 Department of Vascular Medicine, Academic Medical Center , Amsterdam 1105 AZ, The Netherlands.
authors: Willem J M
authors: WJ
authors: Mulder
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D015374:Biosensing Techniques / Q000379:methods*; D016503:Drug Delivery Systems / Q000379:methods*; D031541:Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer; D005456:Fluorescent Dyes / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D006801:Humans; D053758:Nanoparticles / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D013059:Spectrum Analysis, Raman; D014018:Tissue Distribution
chemical_list: D005456:Fluorescent Dyes
keywords: FRET; fluorescence; imaging; multimodality; nanomedicine