title: Antiquity and geographic distribution of cranial modification among the prehistoric groups of Fuego-Patagonia, Chile.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Nineteenth and twentieth century documents testify that four ethnic groups, generally classified as terrestrial hunters or canoe nomads, inhabited Fuego-Patagonia. Archaeologically, however, their presence and temporal depth remains unknown. This study analyzes the antiquity and geographic distribution of cranial modification, a highly visible symbol of social identity, in Fuego-Patagonia, Chile, to assess whether it expressed ethnic affiliation.
  
  
  METHODS
  A total of 60 adult skulls from Southern Patagonia (n = 32; 53.3%) and Tierra del Fuego (n = 28; 46.7%) were examined for age-at-death, sex and cranial modification with standard methods. Individuals were further categorized as terrestrial (n = 26; 43.3%), marine (n = 21; 35%) or indetermined hunter-gatherers (n = 13; 21.7%) based on the archaeological site's characteristics, geographic location, and isotopic information.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Thirty percent (n = 18) of the skulls in this study were modified, and most of the modified skulls (n = 15) presented a tabular-erect shape. No statistically significant differences were identified between Fuegians and Patagonians, males or females, or between the different types of adaptation and geographic locations.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Thus, this Late Holocene, widely distributed practice, was not a reflection of ethnicity, but a material expression of information circulation and the complex social relations that these small-size groups had with one another. These results suggest that the emergence of modern ethnic identities in the region is a historic process that resulted from the interaction of local groups with European and Criollos.
authors: Department of Sociology, Anthropology and Social Work, Kansas State University, Osteology Laboratory, 008 Waters Hall, Manhattan, KS.
authors: Marta P
authors: MP
authors: Alfonso-Durrruty
authors: Department of Sociology, Anthropology and Social Work, Kansas State University, Osteology Laboratory, 008 Waters Hall, Manhattan, KS.|Center for the Environmental Management of Military Lands, Warner College of Natural Resources, Colorado State University, 407 Pershing Court, Fort Riley, KS.
authors: Bretton T
authors: BT
authors: Giles
authors: Water and Environmental Research Center (WERC), University of Alaska, Fairbanks, 458 Duckering, WERC, University of Alaska Fairbanks, AK.
authors: Nicole
authors: N
authors: Misarti
authors: Centro de Estudios del Hombre Austral, Instituto de la Patagonia, Universidad de Magallanes, Ave. Manuel Bulnes, 01890, Punta Arenas, Chile.
authors: Manuel
authors: M
authors: San Roman
authors: Centro de Estudios del Hombre Austral, Instituto de la Patagonia, Universidad de Magallanes, Ave. Manuel Bulnes, 01890, Punta Arenas, Chile.
authors: Flavia
authors: F
authors: Morello
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D046289:Body Modification, Non-Therapeutic / Q000266:history*; D002677:Chile; D003395:Craniology; D005260:Female; D049690:History, Ancient; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D012886:Skull / Q000473:pathology*; D055815:Young Adult
keywords: Patagonia; Tierra del Fuego; cranial modification; hunter-gatherers; information circulation