Polysomnographic sleep disturbances in nicotine, caffeine, alcohol, cocaine, opioid, and cannabis use: A focused review.
OBJECTIVE
In the United States, approximately 60 million Americans suffer from sleep disorders and about 22 million Americans report substance dependence or use disorders annually. Sleep disturbances are common consequences of substance use disorders and are likely found in primary care as well as in specialty practices. The aim of this review was to evaluate the effects of the most frequently used substances-nicotine, alcohol, opioids, cocaine, caffeine, and cannabis-have on sleep parameters measured by polysomnography (PSG) and related clinical manifestations.


METHODS
We used electronic databases such as PubMED and PsycINFO to search for relevant articles. We only included studies that assessed sleep disturbances using polysomnography and reviewed the effects of these substances on six clinically relevant sleep parameters: Total sleep time, sleep onset latency, rapid-eye movement, REM latency, wake after sleep onset, and slow wave sleep.


RESULTS
Our review indicates that these substances have significant impact on sleep and that their effects differ during intoxication, withdrawal, and chronic use. Many of the substance-induced sleep disturbances overlap with those encountered in sleep disorders, medical, and psychiatric conditions. Sleep difficulties also increase the likelihood of substance use disorder relapse, further emphasizing the need for optimizing treatment interventions in these patients.


CONCLUSIONS
Our review highlights the importance of systematically screening for substance use in patients with sleep disturbances and highlights the need for further research to understand mechanisms underlying substances-induced sleep disturbances and on effective interventions addressing these conditions.
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida.
Alexandra N
AN
Garcia
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida.
Ihsan M
IM
Salloum
D000701:Analgesics, Opioid / Q000009:adverse effects*; D002110:Caffeine / Q000009:adverse effects*; D002188:Cannabis / Q000009:adverse effects*; D003042:Cocaine / Q000009:adverse effects*; D000431:Ethanol / Q000009:adverse effects*; D006801:Humans; D009538:Nicotine / Q000009:adverse effects*; D017286:Polysomnography; D012893:Sleep Wake Disorders / Q000139:chemically induced*
D000701:Analgesics, Opioid; D002110:Caffeine; D000431:Ethanol; D009538:Nicotine; D003042:Cocaine