Feather roughness reduces flow separation during low Reynolds number glides of swifts.
Swifts are aerodynamically sophisticated birds with a small arm and large hand wing that provides them with exquisite control over their glide performance. However, their hand wings have a seemingly unsophisticated surface roughness that is poised to disturb flow. This roughness of about 2% chord length is formed by the valleys and ridges of overlapping primary feathers with thick protruding rachides, which make the wing stiffer. An earlier flow study of laminar-turbulent boundary layer transition over prepared swift wings suggested that swifts can attain laminar flow at a low angle of attack. In contrast, aerodynamic design theory suggests that airfoils must be extremely smooth to attain such laminar flow. In hummingbirds, which have similarly rough wings, flow measurements on a 3D printed model suggest that the flow separates at the leading edge and becomes turbulent well above the rachis bumps in a detached shear layer. The aerodynamic function of wing roughness in small birds is, therefore, not fully understood. Here, we performed particle image velocimetry and force measurements to compare smooth versus rough 3D-printed models of the swift hand wing. The high-resolution boundary layer measurements show that the flow over rough wings is indeed laminar at a low angle of attack and a low Reynolds number, but becomes turbulent at higher values. In contrast, the boundary layer over the smooth wing forms open laminar separation bubbles that extend beyond the trailing edge. The boundary layer dynamics of the smooth surface varies non-linearly as a function of angle of attack and Reynolds number, whereas the rough surface boasts more consistent turbulent boundary layer dynamics. Comparison of the corresponding drag values, lift values and glide ratios suggests, however, that glide performance is equivalent. The increased structural performance, boundary layer robustness and equivalent aerodynamic performance of rough wings might have provided small (proto) birds with an evolutionary window to high glide performance.
Department of Mechanical, Maritime and Materials Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft 2628 CD, The Netherlands Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
Evelien
E
van Bokhorst
Engineering and the Environment, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK.
Roeland
R
de Kat
Department of Mechanical, Maritime and Materials Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft 2628 CD, The Netherlands.
Gerrit E
GE
Elsinga
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA dlentink@stanford.edu.
David
D
Lentink
D000818:Animals; D001696:Biomechanical Phenomena; D001717:Birds / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000502:physiology*; D005241:Feathers / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D005426:Flight, Animal; D008954:Models, Biological; D014921:Wings, Animal / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000502:physiology*
Aerodynamic design; Boundary layer; Glide performance; Laminar; Transition