Toward 2D and 3D imaging of magnetic nanoparticles using EPR measurements.
OBJECTIVE
Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) are an important asset in many biomedical applications. An effective working of these applications requires an accurate knowledge of the spatial MNP distribution. A promising, noninvasive, and sensitive technique to visualize MNP distributions in vivo is electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR). Currently only 1D MNP distributions can be reconstructed. In this paper, the authors propose extending 1D EPR toward 2D and 3D using computer simulations to allow accurate imaging of MNP distributions.


METHODS
To find the MNP distribution belonging to EPR measurements, an inverse problem needs to be solved. The solution of this inverse problem highly depends on the stability of the inverse problem. The authors adapt 1D EPR imaging to realize the imaging of multidimensional MNP distributions. Furthermore, the authors introduce partial volume excitation in which only parts of the volume are imaged to increase stability of the inverse solution and to speed up the measurements. The authors simulate EPR measurements of different 2D and 3D MNP distributions and solve the inverse problem. The stability is evaluated by calculating the condition measure and by comparing the actual MNP distribution to the reconstructed MNP distribution. Based on these simulations, the authors define requirements for the EPR system to cope with the added dimensions. Moreover, the authors investigate how EPR measurements should be conducted to improve the stability of the associated inverse problem and to increase reconstruction quality.


RESULTS
The approach used in 1D EPR can only be employed for the reconstruction of small volumes in 2D and 3D EPRs due to numerical instability of the inverse solution. The authors performed EPR measurements of increasing cylindrical volumes and evaluated the condition measure. This showed that a reduction of the inherent symmetry in the EPR methodology is necessary. By reducing the symmetry of the EPR setup, quantitative images of larger volumes can be obtained. The authors found that, by selectively exciting parts of the volume, the authors could increase the reconstruction quality even further while reducing the amount of measurements. Additionally, the inverse solution of this activation method degrades slower for increasing volumes. Finally, the methodology was applied to noisy EPR measurements: using the reduced EPR setup's symmetry and the partial activation method, an increase in reconstruction quality of ≈ 80% can be seen with a speedup of the measurements with 10%.


CONCLUSIONS
Applying the aforementioned requirements to the EPR setup and stabilizing the EPR measurements showed a tremendous increase in noise robustness, thereby making EPR a valuable method for quantitative imaging of multidimensional MNP distributions.
Department of Electrical Energy, Systems and Automation, Ghent University, Zwijnaarde 9052, Belgium.
A
A
Coene
Department of Electrical Energy, Systems and Automation, Ghent University, Zwijnaarde 9052, Belgium.
G
G
Crevecoeur
Department of Electrical Energy, Systems and Automation, Ghent University, Zwijnaarde 9052, Belgium and Department of Solid State Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent 9000, Belgium.
J
J
Leliaert
Department of Electrical Energy, Systems and Automation, Ghent University, Zwijnaarde 9052, Belgium.
L
L
Dupré
D004578:Electron Spin Resonance Spectroscopy; D021621:Imaging, Three-Dimensional; D059346:Magnets; D053758:Nanoparticles