Adaptive responses of androgen receptor signaling in castration-resistant prostate cancer.
Prostate Cancer (PCa) is an important age-related disease being the most common cancer malignancy and the second leading cause of cancer mortality in men in Western countries. Initially, PCa progression is androgen receptor (AR)- and androgen-dependent. Eventually advanced PCa reaches the stage of Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer (CRPC), but remains dependent on AR, which indicates the importance of AR activity also for CRPC. Here, we discuss various pathways that influence the AR activity in CRPC, which indicates an adaptation of the AR signaling in PCa to overcome the treatment of PCa. The adaptation pathways include interferences of the normal regulation of the AR protein level, the expression of AR variants, the crosstalk of the AR with cytokine tyrosine kinases, the Src-Akt-, the MAPK-signaling pathways and AR corepressors. Furthermore, we summarize the current treatment options with regard to the underlying molecular basis of the common adaptation processes of AR signaling that may arise after the treatment with AR antagonists, androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) as well as for CRPC, and point towards novel therapeutic strategies. The understanding of individualized adaptation processes in PCa will lead to individualized treatment options in the future.
Section for Prostate Cancer Research, Institute of Pathology, Center for Integrated Oncology Cologne/Bonn, University Hospital of Bonn, Bonn, Germany.
Sven
S
Perner
Department of Urology, Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany.
Marcus V
MV
Cronauer
Department of Urology, Muenster University Medical Center, Münster, Germany.
Andres Jan
AJ
Schrader
Division of Experimental Urology, Department of Urology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.
Helmut
H
Klocker
Department of Urology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.
Zoran
Z
Culig
Institute of Human Genetics, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany.
Aria
A
Baniahmad
D059002:Androgen Receptor Antagonists / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000818:Animals; D063646:Carcinogenesis; D016207:Cytokines / Q000378:metabolism; D015972:Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D009154:Mutation / Q000235:genetics*; D011110:Polymorphism, Genetic; D057285:Precision Medicine; D064129:Prostatic Neoplasms, Castration-Resistant / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000473:pathology; D020239:Receptor Cross-Talk; D011944:Receptors, Androgen / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism*; D015398:Signal Transduction
D059002:Androgen Receptor Antagonists; D016207:Cytokines; D011944:Receptors, Androgen
androgen receptor; prostate cancer