title: Quantifying crime associated with drug use among a large cohort of sanctioned offenders in England and Wales.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To assess the relationship between testing positive for opiates and/or cocaine and prior offending.
  
  
  METHODS
  139,925 persons (107,573 men) identified from a saliva test for opiate and cocaine metabolites following arrest in England and Wales, 1 April 2005-31 March 2009, were case-linked with 2-year recorded offending history. The prior offending rate, accounting for estimated incarceration periods, was calculated by: drug-test outcome; gender; four main crime categories (acquisitive, non-acquisitive, serious acquisitive, and non-serious acquisitive) and 16 sub-categories. Rate ratio (RR) compared opiate and/or cocaine positive to dual-negative testers. Adjusted rate ratio (aRR) controlled for age at drug test.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The relationship between testing positive for opiates and cocaine and prior 2-year offending was greater for women than men (aRR men 1.77; 95% CI: 1.75-1.79: women 3.51; 3.45-3.58). The association was weaker for those testing positive for opiates only (aRR: men: 1.66, 1.64-1.68; women 2.73, 2.66-2.80). Men testing positive for cocaine only had a lower rate of prior offending (aRR: 0.93, 0.92-0.94), women had a higher rate (aRR: 1.69, 1.64-1.74). The strongest associations were for non-serious acquisitive crimes (e.g. dually-positive: prostitution (women-only): aRR 24.9, 20.9-29.7; shoplifting: aRR men 4.05, 3.95-4.16; women 6.16, 5.92-6.41). Testing positive for opiates and cocaine was associated with violent offences among women (aRR: 1.54, 1.40-1.69) but not men (aRR: 0.98, 0.93-1.02).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Among drug-tested offenders, opiate use is associated with elevated prior offending and the association is stronger for women than men. Cocaine use is associated with prior offending only among women.
authors.affiliation: Centre for Mental Health and Risk, University of Manchester, 4th Floor, Ellen Wilkinson Building, Oxford Road, M13 9PL Manchester, UK. Electronic address: matthias.pierce@manchester.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Matthias
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Pierce
authors.affiliation: Centre for Mental Health and Risk, University of Manchester, 4th Floor, Ellen Wilkinson Building, Oxford Road, M13 9PL Manchester, UK. Electronic address: karen.hayhurst@manchester.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Karen
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Hayhurst
authors.affiliation: MRC Biostatistics Unit, Institute of Public Health, University Forvie Site, Robinson Way, CB2 0SR Cambridge, UK. Electronic address: sheila.bird@mrc-bsu.cam.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Sheila M
authors.initials: SM
authors.lastname: Bird
authors.affiliation: School of Social and Community Medicine, University of Bristol, Canynge Hall, 39 Whatley Road, BS8 2PS Bristol, UK. Electronic address: matthew.hickman@bristol.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Matthew
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Hickman
authors.affiliation: School of Law, University of Manchester, 4.46A Williamson Building, Oxford Road, M13 9PL Manchester, UK. Electronic address: toby.seddon@manchester.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Toby
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Seddon
authors.affiliation: Centre for Biostatistics, University of Manchester, Jean McFarlane Building (First Floor), Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK. Electronic address: graham.dunn@manchester.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Graham
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Dunn
authors.affiliation: Centre for Mental Health and Risk, University of Manchester, 4th Floor, Ellen Wilkinson Building, Oxford Road, M13 9PL Manchester, UK. Electronic address: tim.millar@manchester.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Tim
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Millar
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000701:Analgesics, Opioid / Q000378:metabolism; D003042:Cocaine / Q000378:metabolism; D003415:Crime / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D057237:Criminals / Q000523:psychology / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D055030:Drug Users / Q000523:psychology / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D004739:England / Q000453:epidemiology; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D012463:Saliva / Q000378:metabolism; D012727:Sex Characteristics; D019966:Substance-Related Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology*; D014852:Wales / Q000453:epidemiology
chemical_list: D000701:Analgesics, Opioid; D003042:Cocaine
keywords: Acquisitive offending; Drug use and crime; Gender; Opioid and cocaine use