title: Non-invasive brain stimulation for Parkinson's disease: Current concepts and outlook 2015.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  In advanced Parkinson's disease (PD), the emergence of symptoms refractory to conventional therapy poses a therapeutic challenge. The success of deep brain stimulation (DBS) and advances in the understanding of the pathophysiology of PD have raised interest in non-invasive brain stimulation as an alternative therapeutic tool. The rationale for its use draws from the concept that reversing abnormalities in brain activity and physiology thought to cause the clinical deficits may restore normal functioning. Currently the best evidence in support of this concept comes from DBS, which improves motor deficits, and modulates brain activity and motor cortex physiology, though whether a causal interaction exists remains largely undetermined.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Most trials of non-invasive brain stimulation in PD have applied repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) targeting the primary motor cortex and cortical areas of the motor circuit. Published studies suggest a possible therapeutic potential of rTMS and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), but clinical effects so far have been small and negligible regarding functional independence and quality of life. Approaches to potentiate the efficacy of rTMS, including increasing stimulation intensity and novel stimulation parameters, derive their rationale from studies of brain physiology. These novel parameters simulate normal firing patterns or act on the hypothesized role of oscillatory activity in the motor cortex and basal ganglia in motor control. There may also be diagnostic potential of TMS in characterizing individual traits for personalized medicine.
authors.affiliation: Service de Neurologie, Départment des Neurosciences Cliniques, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Lausanne, Switzerland.
authors.forename: David H
authors.initials: DH
authors.lastname: Benninger
authors.affiliation: Medical Neurology Branch, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD, USA.
authors.forename: Mark
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Hallett
mesh_terms: D046690:Deep Brain Stimulation; D006801:Humans; D010300:Parkinson Disease / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000628:therapy*; D065908:Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation; D050781:Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
keywords: Non-invasive brain stimulation; Parkinson’s disease; neurophysiology; plasticity; repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS); therapeutic study; transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS)