title: Increasing walking among older people: A test of behaviour change techniques using factorial randomised N-of-1 trials.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Evaluations of techniques to promote physical activity usually adopt a randomised controlled trial (RCT). Such designs inform how a technique performs on average but cannot be used for treatment of individuals. Our objective was to conduct the first N-of-1 RCTs of behaviour change techniques with older people and test the effectiveness of the techniques for increasing walking within individuals.
  
  
  METHODS
  Eight adults aged 60-87 were randomised to a 2 (goal-setting vs. active control) × 2 (self-monitoring vs. active control) factorial RCT over 62 days. The time series data were analysed for each single case using linear regressions.
  
  
  METHODS
  Walking was objectively measured using pedometers.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Compared to control days, goal-setting increased walking in 4 out of 8 individuals and self-monitoring increased walking in 7 out of 8 individuals. While the probability for self-monitoring to be effective in 7 out of 8 participants was beyond chance (p = .03), no intervention effect was significant for individual participants. Two participants had a significant but small linear decrease in walking over time.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We demonstrate the utility of N-of-1 trials for advancing scientific enquiry of behaviour change and in practice for increasing older people's physical activity.
authors.affiliation: a Faculty of Science and Technology, Department of Psychology , Bournemouth University , Dorset , UK.|b Bournemouth University Dementia Institute, Bournemouth University , Dorset , UK.
authors.forename: Samuel R
authors.initials: SR
authors.lastname: Nyman
authors.affiliation: c Faculty of Management, Department of Sport and Physical Activity , Bournemouth University , Dorset , UK.
authors.forename: Kelly
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Goodwin
authors.affiliation: d Faculty of Medical Sciences , Institute of Health and Society, Newcastle University, Fuse - UKCRC Centre for Translational Research in Public Health , Newcastle Upon Tyne , UK.
authors.forename: Dominika
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Kwasnicka
authors.affiliation: c Faculty of Management, Department of Sport and Physical Activity , Bournemouth University , Dorset , UK.
authors.forename: Andrew
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Callaway
mesh_terms: D056044:Actigraphy; D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D001521:Behavior Therapy / Q000379:methods*; D005260:Female; D005500:Follow-Up Studies; D006040:Goals; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D000068356:Self-Control; D016138:Walking / Q000523:psychology* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*
keywords: N-of-1; behaviour change; older people; physical activity; self-regulation; walking