title: Development and Evaluation of Chitosan Microparticles Based Dry Powder Inhalation Formulations of Rifampicin and Rifabutin.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The lung is the primary entry site and target for Mycobacterium tuberculosis; more than 80% of the cases reported worldwide are of pulmonary tuberculosis. Hence, direct delivery of anti-tubercular drugs to the lung would be beneficial in reducing both, the dose required, as well as the duration of therapy for pulmonary tuberculosis. In the present study, microsphere-based dry powder inhalation systems of the anti-tubercular drugs, rifampicin and rifabutin, were developed and evaluated, with a view to achieve localized and targeted delivery of these drugs to the lung.
  
  
  METHODS
  The drug-loaded chitosan microparticles were prepared by an ionic gelation method, followed by spray-drying to obtain respirable particles. The microparticles were evaluated for particle size and drug release. The drug-loaded microparticles were then adsorbed onto an inhalable lactose carrier and characterized for in vitro lung deposition on an Andersen Cascade Impactor (ACI) followed by in vitro uptake study in U937 human macrophage cell lines. In vivo toxicity of the developed formulations was evaluated using Sprague Dawley rats.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Both rifampicin and rifabutin-loaded microparticles had MMAD close to 5 μm and FPF values of 21.46% and 29.97%, respectively. In vitro release study in simulated lung fluid pH 7.4 showed sustained release for 12 hours for rifampicin microparticles and up to 96 hours for rifabutin microparticles, the release being dependent on both swelling of the polymer and solubility of the drugs in the dissolution medium. In vitro uptake studies in U937 human macrophage cell line suggested that microparticles were internalized within the macrophages. In vivo acute toxicity study of the microparticles in Sprague Dawley rats revealed no significant evidence for local adverse effects.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Thus, spray-dried microparticles of the anti-tubercular drugs, rifampicin and rifabutin, could prove to be an improved, targeted, and efficient system for treatment of tuberculosis.
authors.affiliation: 1 Department of Pharmaceutics, Bombay College of Pharmacy , Kalina, Santacruz (E), Mumbai, India .
authors.forename: Rohan V
authors.initials: RV
authors.lastname: Pai
authors.affiliation: 1 Department of Pharmaceutics, Bombay College of Pharmacy , Kalina, Santacruz (E), Mumbai, India .
authors.forename: Rajesh R
authors.initials: RR
authors.lastname: Jain
authors.affiliation: 2 Department of Microbiology, Bombay Veterinary College , Parel, Mumbai, India .
authors.forename: Anilkumar S
authors.initials: AS
authors.lastname: Bannalikar
authors.affiliation: 1 Department of Pharmaceutics, Bombay College of Pharmacy , Kalina, Santacruz (E), Mumbai, India .
authors.forename: Mala D
authors.initials: MD
authors.lastname: Menon
mesh_terms: D000280:Administration, Inhalation; D000336:Aerosols; D000818:Animals; D000904:Antibiotics, Antitubercular / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000737:chemistry / Q000378:metabolism / Q000633:toxicity; D048271:Chitosan / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000633:toxicity; D003692:Delayed-Action Preparations; D004337:Drug Carriers; D004339:Drug Compounding; D004355:Drug Stability; D058995:Dry Powder Inhalers; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007700:Kinetics; D007785:Lactose / Q000737:chemistry; D008168:Lung / Q000378:metabolism*; D008264:Macrophages / Q000378:metabolism; D010316:Particle Size; D011208:Powders; D017207:Rats, Sprague-Dawley; D017828:Rifabutin / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000737:chemistry / Q000378:metabolism / Q000633:toxicity; D012293:Rifampin / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000737:chemistry / Q000378:metabolism / Q000633:toxicity; D012995:Solubility; D013499:Surface Properties; D020298:U937 Cells
chemical_list: D000336:Aerosols; D000904:Antibiotics, Antitubercular; D003692:Delayed-Action Preparations; D004337:Drug Carriers; D011208:Powders; D017828:Rifabutin; D048271:Chitosan; D007785:Lactose; D012293:Rifampin
keywords: Andersen Cascade Impactor (ACI); chitosan microparticles; dry powder inhaler; macrophage uptake