title: Motor learning and modulation of prefrontal cortex: an fNIRS assessment.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Prefrontal hemodynamic responses are observed during performance of motor tasks. Using a dance video game (DVG), a complex motor task that requires temporally accurate footsteps with given visual and auditory cues, we investigated whether 20 h of DVG training modified hemodynamic responses of the prefrontal cortex in six healthy young adults.
  
  
  METHODS
  Fronto-temporal activity during actual DVG play was measured using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) pre- and post-training. To evaluate the training-induced changes in the time-courses of fNIRS signals, we employed a regression analysis using the task-specific template fNIRS signals that were generated from alternate well-trained and/or novice DVG players. The HRF was also separately incorporated as a template to construct an alternate regression model. Change in coefficients for template functions at pre- and post- training were determined and compared among different models.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Training significantly increased the motor performance using the number of temporally accurate steps in the DVG as criteria. The mean oxygenated hemoglobin (ΔoxyHb) waveform changed from an activation above baseline pattern to that of a below baseline pattern. Participants showed significantly decreased coefficients for regressors of the ΔoxyHb response of novice players and HRF. The model using ΔoxyHb responses from both well-trained and novice players of DVG as templates showed the best fit for the ΔoxyHb responses of the participants at both pre- and post-training when analyzed with Akaike information criteria.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These results suggest that the coefficients for the template ΔoxyHb responses of the novice players are sensitive indicators of motor learning during the initial stage of training and thus clinically useful to determine the improvement in motor performance when patients are engaged in a specific rehabilitation program.
authors.affiliation: Department of Electronics and Bioinformatics, School of Science and Technology, Meiji University, 1-1-1, Higashi-Mita, Tama-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa, 214-8571, Japan.
authors.forename: Yumie
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Ono
authors.forename: Jack Adam
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Noah
authors.forename: Xian
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Zhang
authors.forename: Yasunori
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Nomoto
authors.forename: Tatsuya
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Suzuki
authors.forename: Sotaro
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Shimada
authors.forename: Atsumichi
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Tachibana
authors.forename: Shaw
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Bronner
authors.forename: Joy
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Hirsch
mesh_terms: D002560:Cerebrovascular Circulation / Q000502:physiology; D006439:Hemodynamics / Q000502:physiology; D006801:Humans; D007858:Learning / Q000502:physiology*; D008297:Male; D009048:Motor Skills / Q000502:physiology*; D017397:Prefrontal Cortex / Q000502:physiology*; D019265:Spectroscopy, Near-Infrared / Q000379:methods*; D018910:Video Games; D055815:Young Adult