title: 3D Tree Dimensionality Assessment Using Photogrammetry and Small Unmanned Aerial Vehicles.
abstract: Detailed, precise, three-dimensional (3D) representations of individual trees are a prerequisite for an accurate assessment of tree competition, growth, and morphological plasticity. Until recently, our ability to measure the dimensionality, spatial arrangement, shape of trees, and shape of tree components with precision has been constrained by technological and logistical limitations and cost. Traditional methods of forest biometrics provide only partial measurements and are labor intensive. Active remote technologies such as LiDAR operated from airborne platforms provide only partial crown reconstructions. The use of terrestrial LiDAR is laborious, has portability limitations and high cost. In this work we capitalized on recent improvements in the capabilities and availability of small unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), light and inexpensive cameras, and developed an affordable method for obtaining precise and comprehensive 3D models of trees and small groups of trees. The method employs slow-moving UAVs that acquire images along predefined trajectories near and around targeted trees, and computer vision-based approaches that process the images to obtain detailed tree reconstructions. After we confirmed the potential of the methodology via simulation we evaluated several UAV platforms, strategies for image acquisition, and image processing algorithms. We present an original, step-by-step workflow which utilizes open source programs and original software. We anticipate that future development and applications of our method will improve our understanding of forest self-organization emerging from the competition among trees, and will lead to a refined generation of individual-tree-based forest models.
authors.affiliation: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, Oregon, United States of America.
authors.forename: Demetrios
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Gatziolis
authors.affiliation: Department of Mathematics, Washington State University Vancouver, Vancouver, Washington, United States of America.
authors.forename: Jean F
authors.initials: JF
authors.lastname: Lienard
authors.affiliation: Department of Mathematics, Washington State University Vancouver, Vancouver, Washington, United States of America; Intel Inc., Hillsboro, Oregon, United States of America.
authors.forename: Andre
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Vogs
authors.affiliation: Department of Mathematics, Washington State University Vancouver, Vancouver, Washington, United States of America.
authors.forename: Nikolay S
authors.initials: NS
authors.lastname: Strigul
mesh_terms: D000465:Algorithms; D007091:Image Processing, Computer-Assisted; D010780:Photogrammetry / Q000295:instrumentation; D058998:Remote Sensing Technology; D014197:Trees