title: Clinical Relevance of Biomarkers of Oxidative Stress.
abstract: CONCLUSIONS
  Oxidative stress is considered to be an important component of various diseases. A vast number of methods have been developed and used in virtually all diseases to measure the extent and nature of oxidative stress, ranging from oxidation of DNA to proteins, lipids, and free amino acids.
  
  
  BACKGROUND
  An increased understanding of the biology behind diseases and redox biology has led to more specific and sensitive tools to measure oxidative stress markers, which are very diverse and sometimes very low in abundance.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The literature is very heterogeneous. It is often difficult to draw general conclusions on the significance of oxidative stress biomarkers, as only in a limited proportion of diseases have a range of different biomarkers been used, and different biomarkers have been used to study different diseases. In addition, biomarkers are often measured using nonspecific methods, while specific methodologies are often too sophisticated or laborious for routine clinical use.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Several markers of oxidative stress still represent a viable biomarker opportunity for clinical use. However, positive findings with currently used biomarkers still need to be validated in larger sample sizes and compared with current clinical standards to establish them as clinical diagnostics. It is important to realize that oxidative stress is a nuanced phenomenon that is difficult to characterize, and one biomarker is not necessarily better than others. The vast diversity in oxidative stress between diseases and conditions has to be taken into account when selecting the most appropriate biomarker.
authors.affiliation: 1 Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht (CARIM), Maastricht University , Maastricht, the Netherlands .
authors.forename: Jeroen
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Frijhoff
authors.affiliation: 2 University of Exeter Medical School , Exeter, United Kingdom .
authors.forename: Paul G
authors.initials: PG
authors.lastname: Winyard
authors.affiliation: 3 LabOS, Rudjer Boskovic Institute , Zagreb, Croatia .
authors.forename: Neven
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Zarkovic
authors.affiliation: 4 Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University , Nashville, Tennessee.|5 Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University , Nashville, Tennessee.
authors.forename: Sean S
authors.initials: SS
authors.lastname: Davies
authors.affiliation: 6 Vascular Biology Division, Victor Chang Cardiac Research Institute , Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia .|7 School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales , Sydney, New South Wales, Australia .
authors.forename: Roland
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Stocker
authors.affiliation: 6 Vascular Biology Division, Victor Chang Cardiac Research Institute , Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Australia .
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Cheng
authors.affiliation: 2 University of Exeter Medical School , Exeter, United Kingdom .
authors.forename: Annie R
authors.initials: AR
authors.lastname: Knight
authors.affiliation: 2 University of Exeter Medical School , Exeter, United Kingdom .
authors.forename: Emma Louise
authors.initials: EL
authors.lastname: Taylor
authors.affiliation: 1 Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht (CARIM), Maastricht University , Maastricht, the Netherlands .
authors.forename: Jeannette
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Oettrich
authors.affiliation: 8 Faculty of Medical Sciences, Goce Delcev University , Stip, Macedonia .
authors.forename: Tatjana
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Ruskovska
authors.affiliation: 3 LabOS, Rudjer Boskovic Institute , Zagreb, Croatia .
authors.forename: Ana Cipak
authors.initials: AC
authors.lastname: Gasparovic
authors.affiliation: 9 Centro de Investigación Biomedica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED) , ISCIII, Madrid, Spain .|10 Instituto de Investigaciones Biomedicas "Alberto Sols" UAM-CSIC , Madrid, Spain .|11 Instituto de Investigacion Sanitaria La Paz (IdiPaz) , Madrid, Spain .|12 Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Autonomous University of Madrid , Madrid, Spain .
authors.forename: Antonio
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Cuadrado
authors.affiliation: 13 Department of Molecular Toxicology, German Institute of Human Nutrition (DIfE) , Nuthetal, Germany .
authors.forename: Daniela
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Weber
authors.affiliation: 14 Faculty of Health Science, University of Copenhagen , Copenhagen, Denmark .|15 Bispebjerg-Frederiksberg Hospital , Copenhagen, Denmark .
authors.forename: Henrik Enghusen
authors.initials: HE
authors.lastname: Poulsen
authors.affiliation: 13 Department of Molecular Toxicology, German Institute of Human Nutrition (DIfE) , Nuthetal, Germany .
authors.forename: Tilman
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Grune
authors.affiliation: 1 Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht (CARIM), Maastricht University , Maastricht, the Netherlands .
authors.forename: Harald H H W
authors.initials: HH
authors.lastname: Schmidt
authors.affiliation: 16 Brighton and Sussex Medical School , Brighton, United Kingdom .
authors.forename: Pietro
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Ghezzi
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000378:metabolism; D004249:DNA Damage; D017127:Glycation End Products, Advanced; D006801:Humans; D015227:Lipid Peroxidation; D008077:Lipoproteins, LDL / Q000378:metabolism; D008315:Malondialdehyde / Q000378:metabolism; D018384:Oxidative Stress; D050050:Protein Carbonylation; D017382:Reactive Oxygen Species
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D017127:Glycation End Products, Advanced; D008077:Lipoproteins, LDL; D017382:Reactive Oxygen Species; C099252:oxidized low density lipoprotein; D008315:Malondialdehyde