title: Characterization of Tissue Response to Impact Loads Delivered Using a Hand-Held Instrument for Studying Articular Cartilage Injury.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The objective of this study was to fully characterize the mechanics of an in vivo impactor and correlate the mechanics with superficial cracking of articular surfaces.
  
  
  METHODS
  A spring-loaded impactor was used to apply energy-controlled impacts to the articular surfaces of neonatal bovine cartilage. The simultaneous use of a load cell and displacement sensor provided measurements of stress, stress rate, strain, strain rate, and strain energy density. Application of India ink after impact was used to correlate the mechanical inputs during impact with the resulting severity of tissue damage. Additionally, a signal processing method to deconvolve inertial stresses from impact stresses was developed and validated.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Impact models fit the data well (root mean square error average ~0.09) and provided a fully characterized impact. Correlation analysis between mechanical inputs and degree of superficial cracking made visible through India ink application provided significant positive correlations for stress and stress rate with degree of surface cracking (R (2) = 0.7398 and R (2) = 0.5262, respectively). Ranges of impact parameters were 7 to 21 MPa, 6 to 40 GPa/s, 0.16 to 0.38, 87 to 236 s(-1), and 0.3 to 1.1 MJ/m(3) for stress, stress rate, strain, strain rate, and strain energy density, respectively. Thresholds for damage for all inputs were determined at 13 MPa, 15 GPa/s, 0.23, 160 s(-1), and 0.59 MJ/m(3) for this system.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This study provided the mechanical basis for use of a portable, sterilizable, and maneuverable impacting device. Use of this device enables controlled impact loads in vitro or in vivo to connect mechanistic studies with long-term monitoring of disease progression.
authors.affiliation: Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, College of Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA.
authors.forename: Edward D
authors.initials: ED
authors.lastname: Bonnevie
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical Sciences, Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine, Ithaca, NY, USA.
authors.forename: Michelle L
authors.initials: ML
authors.lastname: Delco
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical Sciences, Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine, Ithaca, NY, USA.
authors.forename: Lisa A
authors.initials: LA
authors.lastname: Fortier
authors.affiliation: Department of Orthopedic Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
authors.forename: Peter G
authors.initials: PG
authors.lastname: Alexander
authors.affiliation: Department of Orthopedic Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
authors.forename: Rocky S
authors.initials: RS
authors.lastname: Tuan
authors.affiliation: Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, College of Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA ; Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA.
authors.forename: Lawrence J
authors.initials: LJ
authors.lastname: Bonassar
keywords: articular cartilage; in vitro; posttraumatic arthritis