title: Longitudinal study of Clostridium difficile shedding in raccoons on swine farms and conservation areas in Ontario, Canada.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Clostridium difficile is an important enteropathogen affecting humans, domestic animals, and wildlife. The objectives of this study were to 1) compare the prevalence and characteristics of C. difficile isolated from the feces of raccoons trapped on swine farms and conservation sites, and 2) investigate the role of raccoons as potential reservoirs for host-adapted strains of C. difficile using a longitudinal study. Fecal swabs were collected from raccoons at 5 conservation sites and 5 swine farms, once every five weeks, from May to November, 2012.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Clostridium difficile was isolated from 9 % (38/444) of samples, from 12 % (37/302) of raccoons, from all 10 sites. A total of 19 different ribotypes were identified, including 5 ribotypes that matched recognized international designations and which are also found in humans (001, 014, 056, 078, and 103). Location type (farm or conservation area) was not associated with C. difficile status (P = 0.448) but only 3 ribotypes (014, 056, and 078) were found in both location types. The prevalence of ribotype 078 was significantly higher on farms (4 %; 9/220) compared to conservation sites (1 %; 2/225) (P = 0.034). Only one of 108 raccoons caught in multiple sessions was positive on more than one occasion.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We found no evidence to support the hypothesis that raccoons harbour host-adapted strains of C. difficile; rather, it appears that raccoons transiently acquire C. difficile from the environment. Raccoons are unlikely to be maintaining C. difficile, but because we detected C. difficile strains that have the potential to cause illness in humans and livestock, and because raccoons can move relatively large distances, they may play a role in the dissemination of pathogenic ribotypes of C. difficile throughout the environment.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada. kbondo@uoguelph.ca.
authors.forename: Kristin J
authors.initials: KJ
authors.lastname: Bondo
authors.affiliation: Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada. jsweese@uoguelph.ca.
authors.forename: J Scott
authors.initials: JS
authors.lastname: Weese
authors.affiliation: Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada. jorousse@uoguelph.ca.
authors.forename: Joyce
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Rouseau
authors.affiliation: Department of Pathobiology and Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada. cjardi01@uoguelph.ca.
authors.forename: Claire M
authors.initials: CM
authors.lastname: Jardine
mesh_terms: D000822:Animal Husbandry; D000818:Animals; D057138:Bacterial Shedding; D016360:Clostridioides difficile / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D003015:Clostridium Infections / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000635:transmission / Q000662:veterinary; D004197:Disease Reservoirs / Q000382:microbiology; D005243:Feces / Q000382:microbiology; D005260:Female; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D009864:Ontario / Q000453:epidemiology; D011821:Raccoons / Q000382:microbiology*; D013552:Swine / Q000382:microbiology; D013553:Swine Diseases / Q000209:etiology / Q000382:microbiology*