title: Comparison of Clinical and Radiographic Periodontal Status Between Habitual Water-Pipe Smokers and Cigarette Smokers.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  There is a dearth of studies that have compared clinical and radiologic markers of periodontal inflammation between water-pipe smokers (WPs) and cigarette smokers (CSs). The aim of the present study is to compare the clinical and radiographic periodontal status between habitual WPs and CSs.
  
  
  METHODS
  In total, 200 males (50 WPs, 50 CSs, and 100 controls) with comparable mean age and education were included. Demographic information was recorded using a questionnaire. Periodontal parameters (plaque index [PI], bleeding on probing [BOP], probing depth [PD], clinical attachment loss [AL], and marginal bone loss [MBL]) and numbers of missing teeth (MT) were recorded.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The duration of each smoking session for WPs and CSs was 50.2 ± 6.7 and 15.3 ± 0.4 minutes, respectively. Number of MT [P <0.0001], PI [P <0.0001], AL [P <0.0001], PD ≥4 mm [P <0.0001], and MBL [P <0.0001]) was significantly higher among WPs and CSs than controls. BOP was significantly higher among controls than WPs (P <0.0001) and CSs (P <0.0001). There was no statistically significant difference in the aforementioned parameters between WPs and CSs.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Males in a Saudi Arabian community who were CSs or WPs had more MT and poorer periodontal condition than never smokers. The periodontal condition of WPs was equally as poor as CSs. Additional clinical observational studies with emphasis on sex and sociodemographic characteristics are needed.
authors.affiliation: Department of General Dentistry, Eastman Institute for Oral Health, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY.
authors.forename: Fawad
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Javed
authors.affiliation: Dental Health Department, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
authors.forename: Abdulaziz A
authors.initials: AA
authors.lastname: Al-Kheraif
authors.affiliation: Department of Environmental Medicine, Toxicology Training and Lung Biology Disease Programs, School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Rochester.
authors.forename: Irfan
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Rahman
authors.affiliation: Department of General Dentistry, Eastman Institute for Oral Health, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY.
authors.forename: Lorena Teresa
authors.initials: LT
authors.lastname: Millan-Luongo
authors.affiliation: Department of Biostatistics and Computational Biology, School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY.
authors.forename: Changyong
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Feng
authors.affiliation: Department of General Dentistry, Eastman Institute for Oral Health, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY.
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Yunker
authors.affiliation: Department of General Dentistry, Eastman Institute for Oral Health, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY.
authors.forename: Hans
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Malmstrom
authors.affiliation: Department of General Dentistry, Eastman Institute for Oral Health, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY.|Department of Periodontology, School of Dental Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY.
authors.forename: Georgios E
authors.initials: GE
authors.lastname: Romanos
mesh_terms: D003774:Dental Plaque Index; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D017622:Periodontal Attachment Loss; D010510:Periodontal Diseases; D010512:Periodontal Index; D010514:Periodontal Pocket; D012529:Saudi Arabia; D012907:Smoking; D016388:Tooth Loss
keywords: Alveolar bone loss; dental plaque; inflammation; periodontal index; smoking