title: Monte Carlo modeling of ultrasound probes for image guided radiotherapy.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To build Monte Carlo (MC) models of two ultrasound (US) probes and to quantify the effect of beam attenuation due to the US probes for radiation therapy delivered under real-time US image guidance.
  
  
  METHODS
  MC models of two Philips US probes, an X6-1 matrix-array transducer and a C5-2 curved-array transducer, were built based on their megavoltage (MV) CT images acquired in a Tomotherapy machine with a 3.5 MV beam in the EGSnrc, BEAMnrc, and DOSXYZnrc codes. Mass densities in the probes were assigned based on an electron density calibration phantom consisting of cylinders with mass densities between 0.2 and 8.0 g/cm(3). Beam attenuation due to the US probes in horizontal (for both probes) and vertical (for the X6-1 probe) orientation was measured in a solid water phantom for 6 and 15 MV (15 × 15) cm(2) beams with a 2D ionization chamber array and radiographic films at 5 cm depth. The MC models of the US probes were validated by comparison of the measured dose distributions and dose distributions predicted by MC. Attenuation of depth dose in the (15 × 15) cm(2) beams and small circular beams due to the presence of the probes was assessed by means of MC simulations.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The 3.5 MV CT number to mass density calibration curve was found to be linear with R(2) > 0.99. The maximum mass densities in the X6-1 and C5-2 probes were found to be 4.8 and 5.2 g/cm(3), respectively. Dose profile differences between MC simulations and measurements of less than 3% for US probes in horizontal orientation were found, with the exception of the penumbra region. The largest 6% dose difference was observed in dose profiles of the X6-1 probe placed in vertical orientation, which was attributed to inadequate modeling of the probe cable. Gamma analysis of the simulated and measured doses showed that over 96% of measurement points passed the 3%/3 mm criteria for both probes placed in horizontal orientation and for the X6-1 probe in vertical orientation. The X6-1 probe in vertical orientation caused the highest attenuation of the 6 and 15 MV beams, which at 10 cm depth accounted for 33% and 43% decrease compared to the respective (15 × 15) cm(2) open fields. The C5-2 probe in horizontal orientation, on the other hand, caused a dose increase of 10% and 53% for the 6 and 15 MV beams, respectively, in the buildup region at 0.5 cm depth. For the X6-1 probe in vertical orientation, the dose at 5 cm depth for the 3-cm diameter 6 MV and 5-cm diameter 15 MV beams was attenuated compared to the corresponding open fields to a greater degree by 65% and 43%, respectively.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  MC models of two US probes used for real-time image guidance during radiotherapy have been built. Due to the high beam attenuation of the US probes, the authors generally recommend avoiding delivery of treatment beams that intersect the probe. However, the presented MC models can be effectively integrated into US-guided radiotherapy treatment planning in cases for which beam avoidance is not practical due to anatomy geometry.
authors.affiliation: Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305 and Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia V8W 2Y2, Canada.
authors.forename: Magdalena
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Bazalova-Carter
authors.affiliation: SoniTrack Systems, Inc., Palo Alto, California 94304.
authors.forename: Jeffrey
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Schlosser
authors.affiliation: Department of Radiation Oncology, UCSF, San Francisco, California 94143.
authors.forename: Josephine
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Chen
authors.affiliation: Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305.
authors.forename: Dimitre
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Hristov
mesh_terms: D019583:Dose Fractionation, Radiation; D006801:Humans; D009010:Monte Carlo Method; D011874:Radiometry; D061089:Radiotherapy, Image-Guided / Q000295:instrumentation*; D014057:Tomography, X-Ray Computed; D000069453:Ultrasonic Waves