title: Wheat gluten intake increases weight gain and adiposity associated with reduced thermogenesis and energy expenditure in an animal model of obesity.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The association between gluten and body weight is inconsistent. Previously, we showed that a gluten-free diet reduces weight gain without changing food intake in mice fed high-fat diets. In the present study, we investigated the effects of gluten intake on fat metabolism, thermogenesis and energy expenditure in mice fed a standard or high-fat diet.
  
  
  METHODS
  Mice were fed four different experimental diets during 8 weeks: a control-standard diet (CD), a CD added with 4.5% of wheat gluten (CD-G), a high-fat diet (HFD) and a HFD added with 4.5% of wheat gluten (HFD-G). After 8 weeks, the mice received (99m)Tc-radiolabeled gluten orally to study gluten absorption and biodistribution or they underwent indirect calorimetry. After killing, subcutaneous and brown adipose tissues (SAT and BAT) were collected to assess thermogenesis-related protein expression. Lipid metabolism was studied in adipocyte cultures from the four groups.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Despite having had the same energy intake, CD-G and HFD-G mice exhibited increased body weight and fat deposits compared with their respective controls. (99m)Tc-GLU or its peptides were detected in the blood, liver and visceral adipose tissue, suggesting that gluten can even reach extraintestinal organs. Uncoupling protein-1 expression was reduced in the BAT of HFD-G and in the SAT of CD-G and HFD-G mice. Indirect calorimetry showed lower oxygen volume consumption in CD-G and HFD-G groups compared with their controls. In HFD mice, daily energy expenditure was reduced with gluten intake. Gluten also reduced adiponectin, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-α and PPARγ and hormone-sensitive lipase in cultures of isolated adipocytes from HFD mice, whereas in the CD-G group, gluten intake increased interleukin-6 expression and tended to increase that of tumor necrosis factor.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Wheat gluten promotes weight gain in animals on both HFD and CD, partly by reducing the thermogenic capacity of adipose tissues.
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil.
authors.forename: R H
authors.initials: RH
authors.lastname: Freire
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil.
authors.forename: L R
authors.initials: LR
authors.lastname: Fernandes
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil.
authors.forename: R B
authors.initials: RB
authors.lastname: Silva
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil.
authors.forename: B S L
authors.initials: BS
authors.lastname: Coelho
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil.
authors.forename: L P T
authors.initials: LP
authors.lastname: de Araújo
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil.
authors.forename: L S
authors.initials: LS
authors.lastname: Ribeiro
authors.affiliation: Hospital Universitário Clemente Faria, Universidade Estadual de Montes Claros, Montes Claros, Brazil.
authors.forename: J M O
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Andrade
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofísica, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil.
authors.forename: P M A
authors.initials: PM
authors.lastname: Lima
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil.
authors.forename: R S
authors.initials: RS
authors.lastname: Araújo
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil.
authors.forename: S H S
authors.initials: SH
authors.lastname: Santos
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofísica, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil.
authors.forename: C C
authors.initials: CC
authors.lastname: Coimbra
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil.
authors.forename: V N
authors.initials: VN
authors.lastname: Cardoso
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil.
authors.forename: J I
authors.initials: JI
authors.lastname: Alvarez-Leite
mesh_terms: D050156:Adipogenesis; D050154:Adiposity; D000818:Animals; D004195:Disease Models, Animal; D002149:Energy Intake; D004734:Energy Metabolism / Q000502:physiology*; D005247:Feeding Behavior; D005786:Gene Expression Regulation; D005983:Glutens; D050356:Lipid Metabolism; D008297:Male; D051379:Mice; D008810:Mice, Inbred C57BL; D009765:Obesity / Q000378:metabolism*; D022722:Thermogenesis; D015430:Weight Gain / Q000502:physiology*
chemical_list: D005983:Glutens