title: The beneficial effect of testing: an event-related potential study.
abstract: The enhanced memory performance for items that are tested as compared to being restudied (the testing effect) is a frequently reported memory phenomenon. According to the episodic context account of the testing effect, this beneficial effect of testing is related to a process which reinstates the previously learnt episodic information. Few studies have explored the neural correlates of this effect at the time point when testing takes place, however. In this study, we utilized the ERP correlates of successful memory encoding to address this issue, hypothesizing that if the benefit of testing is due to retrieval-related processes at test then subsequent memory effects (SMEs) should resemble the ERP correlates of retrieval-based processing in their temporal and spatial characteristics. Participants were asked to learn Swahili-German word pairs before items were presented in either a testing or a restudy condition. Memory performance was assessed immediately and 1-day later with a cued recall task. Successfully recalling items at test increased the likelihood that items were remembered over time compared to items which were only restudied. An ERP subsequent memory contrast (later remembered vs. later forgotten tested items), which reflects the engagement of processes that ensure items are recallable the next day were topographically comparable with the ERP correlate of immediate recollection (immediately remembered vs. immediately forgotten tested items). This result shows that the processes which allow items to be more memorable over time share qualitatively similar neural correlates with the processes that relate to successful retrieval at test. This finding supports the notion that testing is more beneficial than restudying on memory performance over time because of its engagement of retrieval processes, such as the re-encoding of actively retrieved memory representations.
authors.affiliation: Experimental Neuropsychology Unit, Department of Psychology, Saarland University Saarbrücken, Germany.
authors.forename: Cheng-Hua
authors.initials: CH
authors.lastname: Bai
authors.affiliation: Experimental Neuropsychology Unit, Department of Psychology, Saarland University Saarbrücken, Germany ; Division of Psychology, Birmingham City University Birmingham, UK.
authors.forename: Emma K
authors.initials: EK
authors.lastname: Bridger
authors.affiliation: Brain and Cognition Unit, Department of Psychology, Saarland University Saarbrücken, Germany.
authors.forename: Hubert D
authors.initials: HD
authors.lastname: Zimmer
authors.affiliation: Experimental Neuropsychology Unit, Department of Psychology, Saarland University Saarbrücken, Germany.
authors.forename: Axel
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Mecklinger
keywords: ERP; episodic memory; memory retrieval; reinstatement; testing effect