title: Emerging inequality in effort: A longitudinal investigation of parental involvement and early elementary school-aged children's learning time in Japan.
abstract: While studies on effort (e.g., Carbonaro, 2005; Kariya, 2000, 2013) have revealed relationships among students' effort (e.g., self-reported learning time), socioeconomic status, and school-related factors (e.g., tracking) through secondary education data, whether and how the effort gap emerges and widens in the early years of compulsory education have not been researched. This study investigates the beginning of inequality in effort by using four waves (from first- to fourth-grade students) of the Longitudinal Survey of Babies in the 21st Century, collected in Japan. The results indicate that college-educated parents tend to employ parenting practices that directly and indirectly shape children's learning time; inequality in effort exists, and it becomes exacerbated partly because of parenting differences in a society with a relatively equal elementary education system.
authors.affiliation: Waseda Institute for Advanced Study, Waseda University, Japan. Electronic address: ryojim@aoni.waseda.jp.
authors.forename: Ryoji
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Matsuoka
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Policy Management, Keio University, Japan.
authors.forename: Makiko
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Nakamuro
authors.affiliation: Preparatory Office for the Faculty of International Social Sciences, Gakushuin University, Japan.
authors.forename: Tomohiko
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Inui
mesh_terms: D002648:Child; D004522:Educational Status; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007564:Japan; D007858:Learning; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D010287:Parent-Child Relations; D016487:Parenting; D010290:Parents; D012574:Schools; D013334:Students
keywords: Effort; Extracurricular activities; Learning time; Parental education; Parental involvement; Shadow education