title: Patterns of livestock activity on heterogeneous subalpine pastures reveal distinct responses to spatial autocorrelation, environment and management.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  In order to understand the impact of grazing livestock on pasture ecosystems, it is essential to quantify pasture use intensity at a fine spatial scale and the factors influencing its distribution. The observation and analysis of animal activity is greatly facilitated by remote tracking technology and new statistical frameworks allowing for rapid inference on spatially correlated data. We used these advances to study activity patterns of GPS-tracked cows in six summer-grazing areas in the Swiss Alps that differed in environmental conditions as well as livestock management.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Recorded GPS positions were assigned to the activities of grazing, resting, and walking, and were discretized on a regular grid. Regression models with spatially structured effects were fitted to the spatial activity patterns using Integrated Nested Laplace Approximation. They indicated that terrain slope, forage quality, and stocking rate were the primary factors determining cow activity in the six study areas. Terrain slope significantly reduced livestock activity in five of the six areas and sparse forage availability significantly reduced grazing in all areas. In three areas, grazing pressure imposed by the pasture rotation was observable in the grazing pattern. Insolation, distance to the shed, and distance to water were less important for cow activity. In addition to the main factors identified across all study areas, we found effects operating only in individual areas, which were partly explained by specific environmental and management characteristics. In study areas with few paddocks, environmental variables exerted a stronger control on livestock activity than in areas with a short stocking period per paddock.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The data demonstrated that a strict pasture rotation with short stocking periods is necessary to influence livestock activity, and hence potential effects on ecosystem processes. Without grazing management, livestock activity is primarily determined by the environment. Such insight is indispensable for studying relationships between grazing animals and ecosystem characteristics, and for developing management strategies to optimize ecosystem services. The analysis also highlighted the need for an appropriate statistical treatment of bio-logging data, since various estimates were biased if spatial autocorrelation was ignored.
authors.affiliation: Agroscope, Institute of Sustainability Sciences, Reckenholzstrasse 191, CH-8046 Zurich, Switzerland ; University of Freiburg, Faculty of Biology, Geobotany, Schaenzlestrasse 1, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany.
authors.forename: Hermel
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Homburger
authors.affiliation: Agroscope, Institute of Sustainability Sciences, Reckenholzstrasse 191, CH-8046 Zurich, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Andreas
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Lüscher
authors.affiliation: University of Freiburg, Faculty of Biology, Geobotany, Schaenzlestrasse 1, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany.
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Scherer-Lorenzen
authors.affiliation: Agroscope, Institute of Sustainability Sciences, Reckenholzstrasse 191, CH-8046 Zurich, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Manuel K
authors.initials: MK
authors.lastname: Schneider
keywords: Alps; Animal behavior; GPS tracking; Grazing; INLA; Pasture ecology; Spatial autocorrelation; Stocking rate