title: Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography-related perforations: Diagnosis and management.
abstract: Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) has become an important therapeutic modality for biliary and pancreatic disorders. Perforation is one of the most feared complications of ERCP and endoscopic sphincterotomy. A MEDLINE search was performed from 2000-2014 using the keywords "perforation", "ERCP" and "endoscopic sphincterotomy". All articles including more than nine cases were reviewed. The incidence of ERCP-related perforations was low (0.39%, 95%CI: 0.34-0.69) with an associated mortality of 7.8% (95%CI: 3.80-13.07). Endoscopic sphincterotomy was responsible for 41% of perforations, insertion and manipulations of the endoscope for 26%, guidewires for 15%, dilation of strictures for 3%, other instruments for 4%, stent insertion or migration for 2% and in 7% of cases the etiology was unknown. The diagnosis was made during ERCP in 73% of cases. The mechanism, site and extent of injury, suggested by clinical and radiographic findings, should guide towards operative or non-operative management. In type I perforations early surgical repair is indicated, unless endoscopic closure can be achieved. Patients with type II perforations should be treated initially non-operatively. Non-operative treatment includes biliary stenting, fasting, intravenous fluid resuscitation, nasogastric drainage, broad spectrum antibiotics, percutaneous drainage of fluid collections. Non-operative treatment was successful in 79% of patients with type II injuries, with an overall mortality of 9.4%. Non-operative treatment was sufficient in all patients with type III injuries. Surgical technique depends on timing, site and size of defect and clinical condition of the patient. In conclusion, diagnosis is based on clinical suspicion and clinical and radiographic findings. Whilst surgery is usually indicated in patients with type I injuries, patients with type II or III injuries should be treated initially non-operatively. A minority of them will finally require surgical intervention.
authors.affiliation: Antonios Vezakis, Georgios Fragulidis, Andreas Polydorou, Academic Department of Surgery and Endoscopy Unit, University of Athens, Aretaieion Hospital, 11528 Athens, Greece.
authors.forename: Antonios
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Vezakis
authors.affiliation: Antonios Vezakis, Georgios Fragulidis, Andreas Polydorou, Academic Department of Surgery and Endoscopy Unit, University of Athens, Aretaieion Hospital, 11528 Athens, Greece.
authors.forename: Georgios
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Fragulidis
authors.affiliation: Antonios Vezakis, Georgios Fragulidis, Andreas Polydorou, Academic Department of Surgery and Endoscopy Unit, University of Athens, Aretaieion Hospital, 11528 Athens, Greece.
authors.forename: Andreas
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Polydorou
keywords: Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography; Endoscopic sphincterotomy; Perforation