title: Lower GI bleeding: a review of current management, controversies and advances.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Lower gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding is defined as bleeding distal to the ligament of Treitz. In the UK, it represents approximately 3 % of all surgical referrals to the hospital. This review aims to provide review of the current evidence regarding the management of this condition.
  
  
  METHODS
  Literature was searched using Medline, Pubmed, and Cochrane for relevant evidence by two researchers. This was conducted in a manner that enabled a narrative review of the evidence covering the aetiology, clinical assessment and management options of continuously bleeding patients.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The majority of patients with acute lower GI bleeding can be treated conservatively. In cases where ongoing bleeding occurs, colonoscopy is still the first line of investigation and treatment. Failure of endoscopy and persistent instability warrant angiography, possibly preceded by CT angiography and proceeding to superselective embolisation. Failure of embolisation warrants surgical intervention.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  There are still many unanswered questions. In particular, the development of a more reliable predictive tool for mortality, rebleeding and requirement for surgery needs to be the ultimate priority. There are a small number of encouraging developments on combination therapy with regard to angiography, endoscopy and surgery. Additionally, the increasing use of haemostatic agents provides an additional tool for the management of bleeding endoscopically in difficult situations.
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, Peterborough City Hospital, Peterborough, Cambridgeshire, PE3 9GZ, UK.
authors.forename: Andrew J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Moss
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, Ipswich Hospital NHS Trust, Ipswich, IP4 5PD, UK. dmohell@yahoo.com.
authors.forename: Hussein
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Tuffaha
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, Ipswich Hospital NHS Trust, Ipswich, IP4 5PD, UK.
authors.forename: Arshad
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Malik
mesh_terms: D000792:Angiography; D003113:Colonoscopy; D003952:Diagnostic Imaging; D004621:Embolization, Therapeutic; D006471:Gastrointestinal Hemorrhage / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000209:etiology / Q000628:therapy*; D006490:Hemostatics / Q000627:therapeutic use; D006801:Humans; D012008:Recurrence
chemical_list: D006490:Hemostatics
keywords: Colonoscopy; Endoscopy; GI angiography; GI bleeding; GI haemorrhage; Haematochezia; Lower GI