title: Current opportunities and challenges in intradermal vaccination.
abstract: The skin is an attractive site for immunization in humans and animals, owing to its resident population of dendritic cells and macrophages along with extensive vascularization by lymphatic vessels and blood capillaries. In addition to these physiological attributes, the intradermal route for vaccine delivery also presents a less-invasive alternative to conventional subcutaneous or intramuscular injections. This may offer compliance and convenience advantages for a wide range of stakeholders including patients, healthcare providers, veterinarians, animal owners and animal producers. This review discusses the current developments in intradermal vaccination for human and veterinary applications, with particular focus on the skin immunology, vaccine antigens and adjuvants and delivery systems.
authors.affiliation: Novel Delivery Technologies, Biotherapeutics Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pfizer Inc., Andover, MA, USA.
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Chen
authors.affiliation: Global Biologics Research, Zoetis Inc., Kalamazoo, MI, USA.
authors.forename: Terry
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Bowersock
authors.affiliation: Vaccines Research, Pfizer Inc., Ottawa, ON, Canada.
authors.forename: Risini
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Weeratna
authors.affiliation: Drug Product Design, Pharmatherapeutics Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pfizer Inc., Groton, CT, USA.
authors.forename: Thean
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Yeoh
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D016503:Drug Delivery Systems; D006801:Humans; D007271:Injections, Intradermal / Q000379:methods* / Q000639:trends*; D012879:Skin Physiological Phenomena; D014611:Vaccination / Q000379:methods* / Q000639:trends*