title: Assessment of human virus removal during municipal wastewater treatment in Edmonton, Canada.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To assess the removal of viruses through the multiple steps of wastewater treatment in a full-scale municipal wastewater treatment plant in Alberta, Canada.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Samples were collected after each of the five treatment steps for a period of 16 months. The amount of viruses and their infectivity were analysed using real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) and integrated viral cell culture (ICC), respectively. Bacterial indicator Escherichia coli was also tested using membrane filtration. Seven viruses including Norovirus (NoV), Rotavirus (RV), Sapovirus (SaV), Astrovirus (AsV), Adenovirus (AdV), Enterovirus (EV) and JC virus (JCV) were detected in 16 primary effluents in which infectious viruses were present. Different treatment steps showed various efficiencies in virus removal, with membrane ultrafiltration as the most effective at 4·6-7·0 log reduction.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We observed high prevalence of viruses in raw wastewater and different viral reduction after various treatment steps. The discharge of treated wastewater with infectious viruses represents potential risks to human, animal and environmental health.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This study provides a comprehensive assessment of the removal of NoV, RV, SaV, AsV, AdV, EV, JCV and Reovirus from wastewater by current procedures of municipal wastewater treatment and discusses the applicability of various viruses as viral indicators for water quality.
authors.affiliation: Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada.
authors.forename: Y
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Qiu
authors.affiliation: Department of Pediatrics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada.
authors.forename: B E
authors.initials: BE
authors.lastname: Lee
authors.affiliation: School of Public health, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada.|Provincial Laboratory for Public Health, Edmonton, AB, Canada.
authors.forename: N
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Neumann
authors.affiliation: School of Public health, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada.
authors.forename: N
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Ashbolt
authors.affiliation: EPCOR Water, Edmonton, AB, Canada.
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Craik
authors.affiliation: EPCOR Water, Edmonton, AB, Canada.
authors.forename: R
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Maal-Bared
authors.affiliation: Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada.|Provincial Laboratory for Public Health, Edmonton, AB, Canada.
authors.forename: X L
authors.initials: XL
authors.lastname: Pang
mesh_terms: D000416:Alberta; D006801:Humans; D014777:Virus Diseases / Q000821:virology; D014780:Viruses / Q000145:classification / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification; D062065:Wastewater / Q000382:microbiology*; D018508:Water Purification
chemical_list: D062065:Wastewater
keywords: integrated cell-culture/qPCR; real-time quantitative PCR; virus removal; viruses; wastewater treatment