title: Sport physiology, dopamine and nitric oxide - Some speculations and hypothesis generation.
abstract: Elite Spanish professional soccer players surprisingly showed a preponderance of an allele coding for nitric oxide synthase (NOS) that resulted in lower nitric oxide (NO) compared with Spanish endurance and power athletes and sedentary men. The present paper attempts a speculative explanation. Soccer is an "externally-paced" (EP) sport and team work dependent, requiring "executive function skills". We accept that time interval estimation skill is, in part, also an executive skill. Dopamine (DA) is prominent among the neurotransmitters with a role in such skills. Polymorphisms affecting dopamine (especially DRD2/ANKK1-Taq1a which leads to lower density of dopamine D2 receptors in the striatum, leading to increased striatal dopamine synthesis) and COMT val 158 met (which prolongs the action of dopamine in the cortex) feature both in the time interval estimation and the executive skills literatures. Our paper may be a pioneering attempt to stimulate empirical efforts to show how genotypes among soccer players may be connected via neurotransmitters to certain cognitive abilities that predict sporting success, perhaps also in some other externally-paced team sports. Graphing DA levels against time interval estimation accuracy and also against certain executive skills reveals an inverted-U relationship. A pathway from DA, via endogenous morphine and mu3 receptors on endothelia, to the generation of NO in tiny quantities has been demonstrated. Exercise up-regulates DA and this pathway. With somewhat excessive exercise, negative feedback from NO down-regulates DA, hypothetically keeping it near the peak of the inverted-U. Other research, not yet done on higher animals or humans, shows NO "fine-tuning" movement. We speculate that Caucasian men, playing soccer recreationally, would exemplify the above pattern and their nitric oxide synthase (NOS) would reflect the norm of their community, whereas professional players of soccer and perhaps other EP sports, with DA boosted by very frequent and intense practice and extra stress from public scrutiny, would potentially have their negative feedback system overwhelmed, were it not that many of them carry the C allele of the NOS3-786T/C polymorphism. Then, even very high DA would not result in so much NO as to shut the system down. We add some evolutionary speculations.
authors.affiliation: Chania, Crete, Greece. Electronic address: glanders@live.com.
authors.forename: J G
authors.initials: JG
authors.lastname: Landers
authors.affiliation: Division of Integrative Health Promotion, Coburg University of Applied Sciences, Coburg, Germany; Institute for General Medicine, University Hospital, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany; Neuroscience Research Institute, State University of New York, College at Old Westbury, New York, USA.
authors.forename: Tobias
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Esch
mesh_terms: D056352:Athletes; D002394:Catechol O-Methyltransferase / Q000235:genetics; D004298:Dopamine / Q000378:metabolism*; D056344:Executive Function; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D009569:Nitric Oxide / Q000378:metabolism*; D052250:Nitric Oxide Synthase Type III / Q000235:genetics; D010807:Physical Endurance; D017346:Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases / Q000235:genetics; D017448:Receptors, Dopamine D2 / Q000235:genetics; D057185:Sedentary Behavior; D012916:Soccer; D013030:Spain; D013177:Sports / Q000502:physiology*; D013312:Stress, Physiological
chemical_list: C581293:DRD2 protein, human; D017448:Receptors, Dopamine D2; D009569:Nitric Oxide; C496314:NOS3 protein, human; D052250:Nitric Oxide Synthase Type III; C588010:COMT protein, human; D002394:Catechol O-Methyltransferase; C489948:ANKK1 protein, human; D017346:Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases; D004298:Dopamine