title: Chronic Complications of Diabetes Mellitus: A Mini Review.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a major metabolic disorder currently affecting over 350 million people worldwide. Also, another one billion people in the world are pre-diabetic, who may eventually end up with full- blown diabetes. It costs around 1,200 billion USD to diagnose, treat and care for both type 1 DM (T1DM) and type 2 DM (T2DM) patients globally. The disorder is rapidly increasing out of proportion in both developed and developing countries, especially T2DM, which is associated with modern lifestyle habits such as reduced physical activity, diet, obesity and genetic factors. If left untreated, DM can lead to a number of diseases and long-term complications leading subsequently to death. Areas Covered: In this mini review, we aim to highlight a number of complications, cascades or pathways (polyol, hexosamine, protein kinase C, advanced glycation-end product) of events and cellular, sub-cellular and molecular mechanisms associated with DM-induced hyperglycaemia (HG).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Chronic complications of DM are caused largely by HG-induced cellular and molecular impairment of neural and vascular structure and function. HG-induced oxidative stress is a major contributor in the development of long-term complications of DM. DM-induced neuropathy and angiopathy, in turn, may lead to the dysfunction of cells, tissues and organ systems.
authors.forename: Mohamed
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Lotfy
authors.forename: Jennifer
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Adeghate
authors.forename: Huba
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Kalasz
authors.forename: Jaipaul
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Singh
authors.affiliation: Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, P.O. Box 17666, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates.
authors.forename: Ernest
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Adeghate
mesh_terms: D048909:Diabetes Complications / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000503:physiopathology*; D017127:Glycation End Products, Advanced / Q000378:metabolism; D006801:Humans; D006943:Hyperglycemia / Q000503:physiopathology*; D006973:Hypertension / Q000503:physiopathology; D009765:Obesity / Q000503:physiopathology; D018384:Oxidative Stress; D012307:Risk Factors
chemical_list: D017127:Glycation End Products, Advanced
keywords: Diabetes mellitus; advanced glycation-end products; angiopathy; hyperglycaemia; long-term complications; neuropathy; oxidative stress