title: A systematic review of mirror neuron system function in developmental coordination disorder: Imitation, motor imagery, and neuroimaging evidence.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The aim of this systematic review was to investigate the evidence of abnormal functioning of the mirror neuron system (MNS) in children and adults with developmental coordination disorder (DCD), through examination of imitation, motor imagery, and neuroimaging literature.
  
  
  METHODS
  The following databases were comprehensively searched for relevant articles: CINAHL Plus, Embase, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Pubmed, and Web of Science. Full-text articles of all potentially relevant citations were obtained and assessed for eligibility by two authors. Outcome measures of interest at a motor behaviour level were any measures of imitation or motor imagery proficiency and, at a neurological level, were any measures of neural activity in MNS brain regions. Due to differences in outcome measures between studies and the variables reported, a narrative review was undertaken to synthesise findings from the studies.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Overall, 31 articles met the inclusion criteria. Children and adults with DCD display deficits imitating meaningful and novel gestures and demonstrate different response patterns to controls when undertaking complex motor imagery tasks. Children with DCD present reduced activation and connectivity of frontal, parietal, and temporal MNS regions.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Preliminary evidence indicates some deficit in the functioning of the MNS at a motor behaviour and neurological level. As no published neuroimaging studies have been designed specifically to explore MNS function, these results must be interpreted with caution. Further research to explore the MNS hypothesis in greater detail, particularly from a neuroimaging perspective, has the potential to provide information on the underlying mechanisms of DCD, inform future research into the aetiology of this disorder, and inform intervention approaches.
authors.affiliation: School of Sport Science, Exercise & Health, The University of Western Australia, Australia. Electronic address: jessica.reynolds@research.uwa.edu.au.
authors.forename: Jess E
authors.initials: JE
authors.lastname: Reynolds
authors.affiliation: School of Sport Science, Exercise & Health, The University of Western Australia, Australia.
authors.forename: Ashleigh L
authors.initials: AL
authors.lastname: Thornton
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Australia.
authors.forename: Catherine
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Elliott
authors.affiliation: Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living, and School of Sport and Exercise Science, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia.
authors.forename: Jacqueline
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Williams
authors.affiliation: School of Sport Science, Exercise & Health, The University of Western Australia, Australia.
authors.forename: Brendan S
authors.initials: BS
authors.lastname: Lay
authors.affiliation: School of Sport Science, Exercise & Health, The University of Western Australia, Australia.
authors.forename: Melissa K
authors.initials: MK
authors.lastname: Licari
mesh_terms: D001921:Brain / Q000503:physiopathology*; D059907:Functional Neuroimaging; D006801:Humans; D007092:Imagination / Q000502:physiology*; D007100:Imitative Behavior / Q000502:physiology*; D008279:Magnetic Resonance Imaging; D059167:Mirror Neurons / Q000502:physiology*; D019957:Motor Skills Disorders / Q000503:physiopathology*
keywords: DCD; Developmental coordination disorder; Imitation; Mirror neuron system; Motor imagery