title: The extracranial venous system in the heads of beaked whales, with implications on diving physiology and pathogenesis.
abstract: Beaked whales are a poorly known but diverse group of whales that have received considerable attention due to strandings that have been temporally and spatially associated with naval sonar deployment. Postmortem studies on stranded carcasses have revealed lesions consistent with decompression sickness, including intravascular gas and fat emboli. These findings have been supported by analyses of intravascular gas emboli showing composition dominated by nitrogen gas. To increase our understanding of the pathophysiology of nitrogen bubble formation and intravascular embolization, we examined the gross and microscopic anatomy of the venous system in the head of beaked whales. Since the potential sources of intravascular fat and gas emboli were of greatest interest, focus was placed on the acoustic fat bodies and pneumatic accessory sinus system. Herein, we describe intimate arteriovenous associations with specialized adipose depots and air sinuses in beaked whales. These vascular structures comprise an extensive network of thin-walled vessels with a large surface area, which is likely to facilitate exchange of nitrogen gas and may, therefore, form anatomic regions that may be important in physiological management of diving gases. These structures may also be vulnerable to pathologic introduction of emboli into the vascular system. Expansive, thin-walled venous lakes are found within the pterygoid region, which suggest the potential for nitrogen exchange as well as for compensation of middle-ear pressures during descent on a dive. These findings warrant further research into the structure and function of this morphology as it relates to normal and pathologic physiology.
authors.affiliation: Biology and Marine Biology, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, North Carolina.
authors.forename: Alexander M
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Costidis
authors.affiliation: Biology and Marine Biology, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, North Carolina.
authors.forename: Sentiel A
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Rommel
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D003665:Decompression Sickness / Q000503:physiopathology; D004242:Diving / Q000502:physiology*; D006257:Head / Q000098:blood supply*; D009584:Nitrogen; D014680:Veins / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D014907:Whales / Q000033:anatomy & histology* / Q000502:physiology
chemical_list: D009584:Nitrogen
keywords: cetacean; counter-current; decompression; embolus; nitrogen