title: Physiological evidence for a human-induced landscape of fear in brown bears (Ursus arctos).
abstract: Human persecution is a major cause of mortality for large carnivores. Consequently, large carnivores avoid humans, but may use human-dominated landscapes by being nocturnal and elusive. Behavioral studies indicate that certain ecological systems are "landscapes of fear", driven by antipredator behavior. Because behavior and physiology are closely interrelated, physiological assessments may provide insight into the behavioral response of large carnivores to human activity. To elucidate changes in brown bears' (Ursus arctos) behavior associated with human activity, we evaluated stress as changes in heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) in 12 GPS-collared, free-ranging bears, 7 males and 5 females, 3-11 years old, using cardiac-monitoring devices. We applied generalized linear regression models with HR and HRV as response variables and chest activity, time of day, season, distance traveled, and distance to human settlements from GPS positions recorded every 30 min as potential explanatory variables. Bears exhibited lower HRV, an indication of stress, when they were close to human settlements and especially during the berry season, when humans were more often in the forest, picking berries and hunting. Our findings provide evidence of a human-induced landscape of fear in this hunted population of brown bears.
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, NO-1432 Ås, Norway; Department of Wildlife, Fish and Environmental Studies, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden. Electronic address: ole.stoen@nmbu.no.
authors.forename: Ole-Gunnar
authors.initials: OG
authors.lastname: Støen
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, NO-1432 Ås, Norway; Grimsö Wildlife Research Station, Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-730 91 Riddarhyttan, Sweden. Electronic address: andres.ordiz@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Andres
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Ordiz
authors.affiliation: Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Hedmark University College, Campus Evenstad, NO-2418 Elverum, Norway. Electronic address: alina.evans@hihm.no.
authors.forename: Alina L
authors.initials: AL
authors.lastname: Evans
authors.affiliation: Medtronic Inc., Mounds View, MN 55112, USA; Department of Surgery, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA. Electronic address: tim.g.laske@medtronic.com.
authors.forename: Timothy G
authors.initials: TG
authors.lastname: Laske
authors.affiliation: Department of Wildlife, Fish and Environmental Studies, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden. Electronic address: Jonas.Kindberg@slu.se.
authors.forename: Jonas
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Kindberg
authors.affiliation: Örebro University, Faculty of Health, Department of Cardiology, SE-701 82 Örebro, Sweden. Electronic address: ole.frobert@regionorebrolan.se.
authors.forename: Ole
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Fröbert
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, NO-1432 Ås, Norway; Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, NO-7485 Trondheim, Norway. Electronic address: jon.swenson@nmbu.no.
authors.forename: Jon E
authors.initials: JE
authors.lastname: Swenson
authors.affiliation: Department of Wildlife, Fish and Environmental Studies, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden; Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, Hedmark University College, Campus Evenstad, NO-2418 Elverum, Norway. Electronic address: jon.arnemo@hihm.no.
authors.forename: Jon M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Arnemo
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D005239:Fear / Q000502:physiology* / Q000523:psychology*; D005260:Female; D065928:Forests; D005638:Fruit; D006339:Heart Rate; D006801:Humans; D008124:Locomotion / Q000502:physiology; D008297:Male; D018670:Monitoring, Ambulatory; D012621:Seasons; D013315:Stress, Psychological / Q000503:physiopathology; D013548:Sweden; D001503:Ursidae / Q000502:physiology* / Q000523:psychology*
keywords: Brown bear; Heart rate; Heart rate variability; Human disturbance; Ursus arctos; Wildlife