title: Authorities and foundation of an orthopaedic school in Germany in the nineteenth century: Part I: Conrad Johann Martin Langenbeck; Georg Friedrich Louis Stromeyer; Bernhard Rudolf Conrad von Langenbeck; Johann Friedrich August von Esmarch.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The rapid development of surgery in Germany in the nineteenth century occurred for many reasons, particularly political and economic changes and cultural and scientific progress. This paper analyses the progress of orthopaedic surgery from an historical point of view.
  
  
  METHODS
  After Napoleon's defeat, a peace conference was held in Vienna (1814-1815). Prussia took a portion of Saxony, Austria and territories along the Rhine. The unification of Germany continued in 1850 and 1880; several wars occurred in the unification process, including against Denmark, Austria and France. These wars caused an urgent request for army surgeons and cooperation between civil and military practice.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The increase in the number of faculty institutes in surgery, the unification of different surgical organisations, and the organisation of scientific societies participated in this development. C. Langenbeck, G. Stromeyer, B. von Langenbeck and J.F. von Esmach were the most proactive surgeons of this period
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Improvements in war surgery, percutaneous tenotomy, the foundation of the German Society of Surgery and bloodless surgical techniques for limbs were the most important innovations.
authors.affiliation: Orthopaedic Surgery, University Paris East (UPEC), Hôpital Henri Mondor, 51 Avenue du Marechal de Lattre de Tassigny, 94010, Creteil, France. philippe.hernigou@hmn.aphp.fr.
authors.forename: Philippe
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Hernigou
mesh_terms: D005858:Germany; D049671:History, 18th Century; D049672:History, 19th Century; D006801:Humans; D009985:Orthopedics / Q000266:history* / Q000458:organization & administration; D012577:Schools, Medical / Q000266:history*
keywords: Bernhard Rudolf Conrad von Langenbeck; Conrad Johann Martin Langenbeck; Georg Friedrich Louis Stromeyer; German; History; Johann Friedrich August von Esmarch; Military surgery; Nineteenth century; Orthopaedic surgery