title: Pupillary Responses as a Biomarker of Diminished Effort Associated With Defeatist Attitudes and Negative Symptoms in Schizophrenia.
abstract: The hypothesis that defeatist performance attitudes are associated with decreased goal-directed task effort and negative symptoms in consumers with schizophrenia was investigated by using pupillary responses as a biomarker of task effort. Pupillary dilation during cognitive tasks provides a biomarker of effort devoted to the task, with greater dilation indicating greater effort.
  
  
  
  Defeatist attitudes were assessed in 149 consumers with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder and 50 healthy control subjects, and consumers were divided into three groups (tertile split) with respect to severity of defeatist attitudes. Pupillary dilation responses were recorded during a digit-span task with three-, six-, and nine-digit spans.
  
  
  
  Effort allocation (pupillary responses) to the task increased as the processing load increased from low (three-digit) to moderate (six-digit) demands in healthy control subjects and consumers with schizophrenia with mild and moderate severity of defeatist attitudes. In contrast, consumers with severe defeatist attitudes did not increase their effort when processing demands increased from low to moderate loads. These consumers showed significantly less effort in the six-digit condition relative to consumers with mild defeatist attitudes. Moreover, consumers with severe defeatist attitudes showed significantly greater severity of negative symptoms relative to consumers with mild defeatist attitudes and negative symptoms were significantly correlated with defeatist attitudes.
  
  
  
  These results suggest a relationship between defeatist performance attitudes, goal-directed task effort indexed by pupillary responses, and negative symptoms in schizophrenia. The findings have implications for using cognitive therapy to reduce defeatist attitudes that may contribute to diminished effort and negative symptoms in schizophrenia.
authors.affiliation: Veterans Affairs San Diego Healthcare System (EG, IR, YG-R, JH, PCL), San Diego; Department of Psychiatry (EG), University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California. Electronic address: egranholm@ucsd.edu.
authors.forename: Eric
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Granholm
authors.affiliation: Veterans Affairs San Diego Healthcare System (EG, IR, YG-R, JH, PCL), San Diego.
authors.forename: Ivan
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Ruiz
authors.affiliation: Veterans Affairs San Diego Healthcare System (EG, IR, YG-R, JH, PCL), San Diego.
authors.forename: Yuliana
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Gallegos-Rodriguez
authors.affiliation: Veterans Affairs San Diego Healthcare System (EG, IR, YG-R, JH, PCL), San Diego.
authors.forename: Jason
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Holden
authors.affiliation: Veterans Affairs San Diego Healthcare System (EG, IR, YG-R, JH, PCL), San Diego.
authors.forename: Peter C
authors.initials: PC
authors.lastname: Link
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001290:Attitude; D015415:Biomarkers; D016022:Case-Control Studies; D004106:Dilatation; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D011597:Psychomotor Performance / Q000502:physiology*; D011680:Pupil / Q000502:physiology*; D012559:Schizophrenia / Q000175:diagnosis*; D012565:Schizophrenic Psychology; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers
keywords: Dysfunctional attitudes; Effort; Motivation; Negative symptoms; Pupillometry; Schizophrenia