title: The importance of stress, self-efficacy, and self-medication for pharmacological neuroenhancement among employees and students.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  This study examined the relationship between stress, self-efficacy, self-medication, and pharmacological neuroenhancement (PNE) in the Swiss general population.
  
  
  METHODS
  Using the largest Swiss Internet panel, a sample of 10,171 employees and students (unweighted N=10,084) aged 15-74 years was recruited and asked to complete a self-administered online survey. The data were weighted for age, sex, and language region to provide results that were representative of the Swiss population. Multinomial logistic regression models were conducted to identify predictors of pharmacological cognitive enhancement (PCE) and pharmacological mood enhancement (PME) over the past year. Two self-medication models and an overall model were determined.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Current medical treatment for a mental disorder was the best predictor of both PCE and PME use as serious self-medication. The overall model revealed that cannabis use, frequent stress, and long-term stress were predictors of both PCE and PME, whereas negative stressors and time pressure at work did not remain in the final model. Furthermore, past-year PCE with and without PME was associated with being male, being a student, and using illegal drugs other than cannabis, whereas being female and having low self-efficacy predicted past-year PME only.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Consideration of the predictor variables identified in this study may help to identify the potential PCE and PME users for whom measures to prevent drug abuse and manage stress are most appropriate. More specifically, the use of PCE and PME as self-medication to enhance performance at work or while studying needs further consideration in the neuroenhancement debate.
authors.affiliation: Swiss Research Institute for Public Health and Addiction (ISGF), Associated Institute at the University of Zurich and WHO Collaborating Centre, Zurich, Switzerland. Electronic address: larissa.maier@isgf.uzh.ch.
authors.forename: Larissa J
authors.initials: LJ
authors.lastname: Maier
authors.affiliation: Swiss Research Institute for Public Health and Addiction (ISGF), Associated Institute at the University of Zurich and WHO Collaborating Centre, Zurich, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Severin
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Haug
authors.affiliation: Swiss Research Institute for Public Health and Addiction (ISGF), Associated Institute at the University of Zurich and WHO Collaborating Centre, Zurich, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Michael P
authors.initials: MP
authors.lastname: Schaub
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000339:Affect / Q000187:drug effects; D000367:Age Factors; D000368:Aged; D004363:Drug Utilization; D005260:Female; D015438:Health Behavior; D006801:Humans; D007802:Language; D008297:Male; D002189:Marijuana Abuse / Q000523:psychology; D008875:Middle Aged; D018697:Nootropic Agents; D020377:Self Efficacy; D012651:Self Medication / Q000523:psychology*; D012737:Sex Factors; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors; D013315:Stress, Psychological / Q000523:psychology*; D013334:Students; D013557:Switzerland / Q000453:epidemiology; D014937:Work; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D018697:Nootropic Agents
keywords: Cognitive enhancement; Illegal drug use; Mental health; Mood enhancement; Neuroenhancement; Self-medication