Outdoor air pollution exposures and micronuclei frequencies in lymphocytes from pregnant women and newborns in Crete, Greece (Rhea cohort).
BACKGROUND
Micronuclei (MN) are biomarkers of early genetic effects that have been used to investigate the association between environmental exposures and cancer. However, few studies have examined the association between environmental exposures during pregnancy and MN in mothers and newborns.


OBJECTIVE
We examined MN frequency in maternal blood and in cord blood, in relation to maternal air pollution exposure, and the potential interaction with maternal vitamin C intake and maternal smoking.


METHODS
We used the cytokinesis-block micronucleus assay to assess MN frequency per 1000 bi-nucleated T-lymphocytes from 181 mothers and 183 newborns born in 2007-2008 in Heraklion (Crete, Greece). The ESCAPE land-use regression methods were used to estimate annual mean exposure to outdoor air pollution [particulate matter (PM), black carbon, nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx)] at maternal home addresses. Food frequency questionnaires were used to estimate maternal dietary vitamin C intake during pregnancy. Smoking habits were self-reported using questionnaires which were checked by measuring maternal urinary cotinine levels.


RESULTS
Exposure to PM2.5 was associated with increased MN frequencies in pregnant women [rate ratio [RR (95%CI)] per 5 µg/m(3)=1.53 (1.02, 2.29)]. This increase was considerably higher among women who did not fulfill the recommended vitamin C dietary allowances [RR=9.35 (2.77, 31.61); n=20]. Exposure to PM2.5-10, PM10, NO2 and NOx were also associated with a higher incidence of MN frequencies in smoker women (n=56). No associations were found for newborns.


CONCLUSIONS
We found an association between air pollution, particularly PM2.5, and MN frequency in mothers but not in newborns. This association was more pronounced among women with a lower dietary intake of vitamin C during pregnancy and among women who smoked during pregnancy. While results are clear in mothers, the association between maternal carcinogenic exposures during pregnancy and biomarkers of early biologic effect in the newborn remains poorly understood.
Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain. Electronic address: cocallaghan@creal.cat.
Cristina
C
O'Callaghan-Gordo
Department of Social Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece.
Eleni
E
Fthenou
Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain; INSERM (National Institute of Health and Medical Research), U823, Team of Environmental Epidemiology Applied to Reproduction and Respiratory Health, Institute Albert Bonniot, Grenoble, France.
Marie
M
Pedersen
Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain; IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain.
Ana
A
Espinosa
Department of Social Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece.
Leda
L
Chatzi
Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Division Environmental Epidemiology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
Rob
R
Beelen
Department of Social Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece.
Georgia
G
Chalkiadaki
Laboratory of Cell Genetics, Faculty of Science and Bio-engineering, Vrije Universitei Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.
Ilse
I
Decordier
Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Division Environmental Epidemiology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
Gerard
G
Hoek
Istituto di Ricerca e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS) Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria (AOU) San Martino - Istituto Nazionale per la Ricerca sul Cancro (IST), Genoa, Italy.
Domenico Franco
DF
Merlo
Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain.
Mark
M
Nieuwenhuijsen
Department of Social Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece.
Theano
T
Roumeliotaki
Department of Social Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece.
Marina
M
Vafeiadi
Laboratory of Cell Genetics, Faculty of Science and Bio-engineering, Vrije Universitei Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.
Kim
K
Vande Loock
Department of Toxicogenomics, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
Jos
J
Kleinjans
Environmental Chemical Processes Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece.
Euripides
E
Stephanou
Laboratory of Cell Genetics, Faculty of Science and Bio-engineering, Vrije Universitei Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.
Micheline
M
Kirsch-Volders
Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain; IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain.
Manolis
M
Kogevinas
D000328:Adult; D000393:Air Pollutants / Q000633:toxicity*; D001205:Ascorbic Acid / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000627:therapeutic use; D015331:Cohort Studies; D005260:Female; D005312:Fetal Blood / Q000166:cytology; D006115:Greece / Q000453:epidemiology; D006801:Humans; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D008214:Lymphocytes / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000473:pathology; D008297:Male; D018811:Maternal Exposure / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000517:prevention & control; D048629:Micronuclei, Chromosome-Defective / Q000139:chemically induced* / Q000187:drug effects / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D010316:Particle Size; D052638:Particulate Matter / Q000633:toxicity*; D011247:Pregnancy; D011297:Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects / Q000139:chemically induced* / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000235:genetics / Q000517:prevention & control; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000453:epidemiology; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires
D000393:Air Pollutants; D052638:Particulate Matter; D001205:Ascorbic Acid
Air pollution; Micronucleus assay; Mother–child cohorts