The prescription opioid epidemic: an overview for anesthesiologists.
OBJECTIVE
The objectives for preparing this article were to review the historical context and epidemiology surrounding the North American prescription opioid crisis, to summarize the evidence regarding the benefits and harms of long-term opioid therapy for non-cancer pain, and to outline ways in which anesthesiologists may help ameliorate the problem.


METHODS
We searched PubMed, Google Scholar, and EMBASE™ for relevant articles using various search terms, including pain, opioid epidemic, history of opioid use, perioperative care, and addiction. Related citations were further explored and searched depending on the specific subtopic of interest.


RESULTS
In the 1980s and early 1990s, opioids were infrequently used for the treatment of chronic pain. Thereafter, however, physicians were gradually inculcated with the message that long-term opioid therapy was a safe and effective treatment option for patients with chronic non-cancer pain. Pharmaceutical companies supported this growing movement and employed aggressive and sometimes misleading marketing strategies for new opioid formulations. As a result, the practice of prescribing opioids flourished in the late 1990s. The surge in prescribing opioids was accompanied by a marked increase in opioid-related morbidity and mortality. This change in practice transpired despite the absence of randomized trials showing clinically significant benefit from the long-term use of opioids. Subsequently, however, a large and growing body of evidence has emerged quantifying the harms associated with long-term opioid therapy. Anesthesiologists widely prescribe opioids for acute and chronic pain; yet, as a group, they may be largely unaware of the current state of this growing epidemic and what role they can play to rectify this problem.


CONCLUSIONS
Anesthesiologists are well positioned to take a leadership role in the management of postoperative discharge opioid therapy in an effort to curb the overutilization of opioids. Furthermore, anesthesiologists who regularly prescribe opioids for chronic pain patients should appreciate the limited evidence base for this practice and communicate the risks of opioid therapy to their patients.
Department of Anesthesia, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, 2075 Bayview Avenue, Toronto, ON, M4N 3M5, Canada. asim.alam@sunnybrook.ca.|Trauma, Emergency and Critical Care Program, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Toronto, ON, Canada. asim.alam@sunnybrook.ca.|Department of Anesthesia, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada. asim.alam@sunnybrook.ca.
Asim
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Alam
Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.|Department of Pediatrics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.|Health Policy, Management and Evaluation, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.
David N
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Juurlink
D000701:Analgesics, Opioid / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D000776:Anesthesiology; D059350:Chronic Pain / Q000188:drug therapy; D011307:Drug Prescriptions / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D006801:Humans
D000701:Analgesics, Opioid