title: Occurrence, distribution, and sources of antimicrobials in a mixed-use watershed.
abstract: The release into the environment of antimicrobial compounds from both human and agricultural sources is a growing global concern. The Grand River watershed, the largest mixed-use watershed in southern Ontario, receives runoff from intensive animal production as well as municipal wastewater effluents from a rapidly increasing human population. A survey of surface waters and wastewater effluents was conducted across the watershed to assess the occurrence and distribution of several antimicrobials (i.e., trimethoprim, sulfamethoxazole, sulfamethazine, lincomycin, and monensin) and chemical indicators (i.e., ammonia, nitrate, ibuprofen, venlafaxine, atrazine) and to characterize exposure levels. The human antimicrobials trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole were detected in the urban areas of the main channel at mean concentrations of 8 ± 7 ng/L and 31 ± 24 ng/L, respectively, but at much lower concentrations in the agricultural tributaries. In contrast, the veterinary antimicrobial sulfamethazine was detected at a mean concentration of 11 ± 9 ng/L in the main channel, and at a much higher concentration in the agricultural tributaries. Lincomycin was detected in only two river samples and not in the effluents while monensin was not detected in all samples. The herbicide atrazine was detected at very low concentrations in the surface waters of both the tributaries and the main channel. The concentrations of the antimicrobials and chemical indicators generally increased downstream of the confluences with agricultural tributaries and effluent outfalls. In the wastewater effluents, the concentrations of trimethoprim, sulfamethoxazole, ibuprofen, and venlafaxine decreased with increasing treatment levels (i.e., secondary to tertiary) as indicated by ammonia/nitrate concentrations. There was a strong correlation among trimethoprim, sulfamethoxazole, and venlafaxine in the main channel and in the wastewater effluents. While the environmental concentrations of antimicrobials in the watershed are low relative to toxicity thresholds, their persistence in the environment may be an important consideration in defining strategies for future water management.
authors.affiliation: University of Waterloo Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada.
authors.forename: Nathanael P
authors.initials: NP
authors.lastname: Couperus
authors.affiliation: University of Massachusetts Lowell Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Lowell, MA 01854, USA. Electronic address: Sheree_Pagsuyoin@uml.edu.
authors.forename: Sheree A
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Pagsuyoin
authors.affiliation: University of Waterloo Biology Department, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada.
authors.forename: Leslie M
authors.initials: LM
authors.lastname: Bragg
authors.affiliation: University of Waterloo Biology Department, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada.
authors.forename: Mark R
authors.initials: MR
authors.lastname: Servos
mesh_terms: D000890:Anti-Infective Agents / Q000032:analysis*; D004784:Environmental Monitoring; D009864:Ontario; D062065:Wastewater / Q000737:chemistry; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000032:analysis*
chemical_list: D000890:Anti-Infective Agents; D062065:Wastewater; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical
keywords: Antimicrobials; Effluent discharge; Livestock farms; Surface water; Wastewater treatment; Watershed