title: Characterization of Pores in Dense Nanopapers and Nanofibrillated Cellulose Membranes: A Critical Assessment of Established Methods.
abstract: Nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) is a natural fibrous material that can be readily processed into membranes. NFC membranes for fluid separation work in aqueous medium, thus in their swollen state. The present study is devoted to a critical investigation of porosity, pore volume, specific surface area, and pore size distribution of dry and wet NFC nanopapers, also known as membranes, with various established techniques, such as electron microscopy, helium pycnometry, mercury intrusion, gas adsorption (N2 and Kr), and thermoporometry. Although these techniques can be successfully applied to inorganic materials (e.g., mesoporous silica), it is necessary to appraise them for organic and hydrophilic products such as NFC membranes. This is due to different phenomena occurring at the materials interfaces with the probing fluids. Mercury intrusion and gas adsorption are often used for the characterization of porosity-related properties; nevertheless, both techniques characterize materials in the dry state. In parallel, thermoporometry was employed to monitor the structure changes upon swelling, and a water permeance test was run to show the accessibility of the membranes to fluids. For the first time, the methods were systematically screened, and we highlighted the need of uniform sample treatments prior to the measurements (i.e., sample cutting and outgassing protocols) in order to harmonize results from the literature. The need for revising the applicability range of mercury intrusion and the inappropriateness of nitrogen adsorption were pointed out. We finally present a table for selecting the most appropriate method to determine a desired property and propose guidelines for results interpretation from which future users could profit.
authors.affiliation: Empa - Swiss Federal Laboratories for Material Science and Technology, Applied Wood Materials Laboratory , CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Paola
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Orsolini
authors.affiliation: Empa - Swiss Federal Laboratories for Material Science and Technology, Applied Wood Materials Laboratory , CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Benjamin
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Michen
authors.affiliation: Empa - Swiss Federal Laboratories for Material Science and Technology, Applied Wood Materials Laboratory , CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Anja
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Huch
authors.affiliation: Empa - Swiss Federal Laboratories for Material Science and Technology, Applied Wood Materials Laboratory , CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Philippe
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Tingaut
authors.forename: Walter R
authors.initials: WR
authors.lastname: Caseri
authors.affiliation: Empa - Swiss Federal Laboratories for Material Science and Technology, Applied Wood Materials Laboratory , CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Tanja
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Zimmermann
keywords: gas adsorption; membranes; mercury intrusion; nanofibrillated cellulose; pore size distribution; porosity; specific surface area; thermoporometry