title: The sensory origins of human position sense.
abstract: CONCLUSIONS
  Position sense at the human forearm can be measured in blindfolded subjects by matching positions of the arms or by a subject pointing to the perceived position of an unseen arm. Effects on position sense tested were: elbow muscle conditioning with a voluntary contraction, muscle vibration, loading the arm and elbow skin stretch. Conditioning contractions and vibration produced errors in a matching task, consistent with the action of muscle spindles as position sensors. Position errors in a pointing task were not consistent with the action of muscle spindles. Loading the arm or skin stretch had no effect in either matching or pointing tasks. It is proposed that there are two kinds of position sense: (i) indicating positions of different body parts relative to one another, using signals from muscle spindles; and (ii) indicating position of the body in extrapersonal space, using signals from exteroceptors, vision, touch and hearing.
  Human limb position sense can be measured in two ways: in a blindfolded matching task, position of one limb is indicated with the other limb. Alternatively, position of a limb, hidden from view, is indicated with a pointer, moved by pressing a lever. These experiments examined the sensory basis of position sense measured in these two ways. Position errors were measured in 14 subjects after elbow flexors or extensors had been conditioned with a half-maximum voluntary contraction. In agreement with previous studies, in the matching trials, position errors were distributed according to a pattern consistent with the action of muscle spindles as the position sensors. In the pointing trials, all errors lay in the direction of extension of the true position of the hidden arm and their distribution was inconsistent with influences arising in muscle spindles. Vibration of elbow muscles produced an illusion of muscle lengthening during a matching task, while during the pointing task no illusion was present. Finally, the matching-pointing error difference was preserved, even when one arm was loaded with a weight or skin over the elbow was stretched. It is proposed that there are two kinds of position sense. One is signalled by muscle spindles, indicating position of one part of the body relative to another. A second provides information about the position of the body in extrapersonal space and here we hypothesise that exteroceptors, including vision, touch and hearing, acting via a central map of the body, provide the spatial information.
authors.affiliation: School of Psychological Sciences and Monash Institute of Cognitive and Clinical Neurosciences, Monash University, Clayton, Vic, 3800, Australia.|Caulfield Pain Management and Research Centre, Caulfield Hospital, Caulfield, Vic, 3162, Australia.
authors.forename: A J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Tsay
authors.affiliation: School of Psychological Sciences and Monash Institute of Cognitive and Clinical Neurosciences, Monash University, Clayton, Vic, 3800, Australia.|Caulfield Pain Management and Research Centre, Caulfield Hospital, Caulfield, Vic, 3162, Australia.
authors.forename: M J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Giummarra
authors.affiliation: Accident Research Centre, Monash Injury Research Institute, Clayton, Vic, 3800, Australia.
authors.forename: T J
authors.initials: TJ
authors.lastname: Allen
authors.affiliation: Department of Physiology, Monash University, Clayton, Vic, 3800, Australia.
authors.forename: U
authors.initials: U
authors.lastname: Proske
mesh_terms: D001828:Body Image; D005260:Female; D005542:Forearm / Q000294:innervation / Q000502:physiology; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D009068:Movement; D009119:Muscle Contraction; D018482:Muscle, Skeletal / Q000294:innervation / Q000502:physiology; D010550:Personal Space; D011597:Psychomotor Performance; D012677:Sensation; D055815:Young Adult