title: Regression models for analyzing radiological visual grading studies--an empirical comparison.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  For optimizing and evaluating image quality in medical imaging, one can use visual grading experiments, where observers rate some aspect of image quality on an ordinal scale. To analyze the grading data, several regression methods are available, and this study aimed at empirically comparing such techniques, in particular when including random effects in the models, which is appropriate for observers and patients.
  
  
  METHODS
  Data were taken from a previous study where 6 observers graded or ranked in 40 patients the image quality of four imaging protocols, differing in radiation dose and image reconstruction method. The models tested included linear regression, the proportional odds model for ordinal logistic regression, the partial proportional odds model, the stereotype logistic regression model and rank-order logistic regression (for ranking data). In the first two models, random effects as well as fixed effects could be included; in the remaining three, only fixed effects.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In general, the goodness of fit (AIC and McFadden's Pseudo R (2)) showed small differences between the models with fixed effects only. For the mixed-effects models, higher AIC and lower Pseudo R (2) was obtained, which may be related to the different number of parameters in these models. The estimated potential for dose reduction by new image reconstruction methods varied only slightly between models.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The authors suggest that the most suitable approach may be to use ordinal logistic regression, which can handle ordinal data and random effects appropriately.
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical and Health Sciences (IMH), Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden. ehsan.saffari@duke-nus.edu.sg.|Sabzevar University of Medical Sciences, Sabzevar, Iran. ehsan.saffari@duke-nus.edu.sg.
authors.forename: S Ehsan
authors.initials: SE
authors.lastname: Saffari
authors.affiliation: Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Lund University, Clinical Sciences, Lund, Sweden. askell.love@gmail.com.|Department of Radiology, Landspitali University Hospital, Reykjavik and Faculty of Medicine, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland. askell.love@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Áskell
authors.initials: Á
authors.lastname: Löve
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden. mats.fredrikson@liu.se.
authors.forename: Mats
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Fredrikson
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical and Health Sciences (IMH), Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden. orjan.smedby@sth.kth.se.|KTH Royal Institute of Technology, School of Technology and Health, Alfred Nobels allé 10, SE-141 52, Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden. orjan.smedby@sth.kth.se.
authors.forename: Örjan
authors.initials: Ö
authors.lastname: Smedby
mesh_terms: D000465:Algorithms; D006801:Humans; D016014:Linear Models; D016015:Logistic Models; D015233:Models, Statistical; D015588:Observer Variation; D011857:Radiographic Image Interpretation, Computer-Assisted / Q000379:methods*; D011874:Radiometry / Q000379:methods*