title: Preferred natural food of breeding Kakapo is a high value source of calcium and vitamin D.
abstract: The Kakapo, a large NZ native parrot, is under severe threat of extinction. Kakapo breed only in years when the local podocarps, including rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum), are fruiting heavily, and the fruit are the preferred food both in the diet of breeding females and for provisioning chicks. Attempts to provide a supplementary food during years of poor fruit supply have failed to encourage breeding. Nutrient analysis of rimu berries reveals high calcium content (8.4mg/g dry matter) which would be essential for both egg shell production and the growing skeleton of the chick. Vitamin D is also critical for these processes and for the maintenance of calcium homeostasis, but the source of vitamin D for these nocturnal, ground-dwelling vegetarians is unknown.
  
  
  
  To examine the vitamin D status of adult Kakapo, and to investigate the possibility that rimu berries provide vitamin D as well as calcium, thus differentiating them from the supplementary foods provided to date.
  
  
  
  Previously collected and frozen serum from 10 adult birds (6 females, 4 males) was assayed for 25(OH)D3and D2. Two batches of previously frozen rimu berries were analysed for vitamin D3and D2.
  
  
  
  Vitamin D status of the 10 adult birds was very low; mean 4.9nmol/l, range 1-14nmol/l 25(OH)D3. No 25(OH)D2was detected in any of the birds. High levels of D2and moderate levels of D3were found in the rimu berries.
  
  
  
  Traditionally it has been considered that the D3isoform of this endogenously produced secosteroid is produced only in animals. However, D3has been reported in the leaves of plants of the Solanacae family (tomato, potato, capsicum). The avian vitamin D receptor (VDR) is thought to have a much greater affinity for the D3form. Therefore if rimu fruit are able to provide breeding Kakapo with D3, and are a plentiful source of calcium, they could be the perfect food package for breeding and nesting birds. Of wider importance, this finding challenges conventional understanding that D3 production is exclusive to animals, and that there are no high concentration food sources of vitamin D.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Food Science and Technology, School of Food and Nutrition, College of Health, Massey University, Private Bag 102904, Auckland, New Zealand. Electronic address: p.r.vonhurst@massey.ac.nz.
authors.forename: P R
authors.initials: PR
authors.lastname: von Hurst
authors.affiliation: Department of Conservation, 653 Wairoa Gorge Road, RD1 Brightwater, Nelson 7091, New Zealand. Electronic address: ronxjw@gmail.com.
authors.forename: R J
authors.initials: RJ
authors.lastname: Moorhouse
authors.affiliation: Charles Perkins Centre, Faculty of Veterinary Science, School of Biological Sciences, Level 4 East, D17-Education and Research Hub, The Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia. Electronic address: david.raubenheimer@sydney.edu.au.
authors.forename: D
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Raubenheimer
mesh_terms: D000821:Animal Feed / Q000032:analysis; D000824:Animal Nutritional Physiological Phenomena; D000818:Animals; D001947:Breeding; D002118:Calcium / Q000032:analysis*; D002762:Cholecalciferol / Q000032:analysis / Q000097:blood; D005260:Female; D005638:Fruit / Q000737:chemistry*; D008297:Male; D009520:New Zealand; D010311:Parrots / Q000097:blood / Q000502:physiology*; D064028:Tracheophyta / Q000737:chemistry*; D014807:Vitamin D / Q000032:analysis* / Q000097:blood
chemical_list: D014807:Vitamin D; D002762:Cholecalciferol; D002118:Calcium
keywords: Kakapo; Parrots; Vitamin D