title: Use of multiple modes of flight subsidy by a soaring terrestrial bird, the golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos, when on migration.
abstract: Large birds regularly use updrafts to subsidize flight. Although most research on soaring bird flight has focused on use of thermal updrafts, there is evidence suggesting that many species are likely to use multiple modes of subsidy. We tested the degree to which a large soaring species uses multiple modes of subsidy to provide insights into the decision-making that underlies flight behaviour. We statistically classified more than 22 000 global positioning satellite-global system for mobile communications telemetry points collected at 30-s intervals to identify the type of subsidized flight used by 32 migrating golden eagles during spring in eastern North America. Eagles used subsidized flight on 87% of their journey. They spent 41.9% ± 1.5 ([Formula: see text], range: 18-56%) of their subsidized northbound migration using thermal soaring, 45.2% ± 2.1 (12-65%) of time gliding between thermals, and 12.9% ± 2.2 (1-55%) of time using orographic updrafts. Golden eagles responded to the variable local-scale meteorological events they encountered by switching flight behaviour to take advantage of multiple modes of subsidy. Orographic soaring occurred more frequently in morning and evening, earlier in the migration season, and when crosswinds and tail winds were greatest. Switching between flight modes allowed migration for relatively longer periods each day and frequent switching behaviour has implications for a better understanding of avian flight behaviour and of the evolution of use of subsidy in flight.
authors.affiliation: Division of Forestry and Natural Resources, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station, Parsons, WV 26287, USA tkatzner@usgs.gov.
authors.forename: Todd E
authors.initials: TE
authors.lastname: Katzner
authors.affiliation: Department of Statistics, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA.
authors.forename: Philip J
authors.initials: PJ
authors.lastname: Turk
authors.affiliation: Division of Forestry and Natural Resources, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA.
authors.forename: Adam E
authors.initials: AE
authors.lastname: Duerr
authors.affiliation: Division of Forestry and Natural Resources, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA.
authors.forename: Tricia A
authors.initials: TA
authors.lastname: Miller
authors.affiliation: Cellular Tracking Technologies, LLC, 2405 North Center Avenue, Somerset, PA 15501, USA.
authors.forename: Michael J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Lanzone
authors.affiliation: Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries, Fredericksburg, VA 22401, USA.
authors.forename: Jeff L
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Cooper
authors.affiliation: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Lafayette College, Easton, PA 18042, USA.
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Brandes
authors.affiliation: Environment Canada, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada G1J 0C3.
authors.forename: Junior A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Tremblay
authors.affiliation: Ministère des Forêts, de la Faune et des Parcs, Québec, Québec, Canada G1S 4X4.
authors.forename: Jérôme
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Lemaître
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D020307:Eagles / Q000502:physiology*; D005426:Flight, Animal / Q000502:physiology*; D008954:Models, Biological
keywords: Aquila chrysaetos; flight behaviour; golden eagle; migration; subsidized flight; weighted-k nearest neighbour