title: Psychological Placebo and Nocebo Effects on Pain Rely on Expectation and Previous Experience.
abstract: Expectation and previous experience are both well established key mediators of placebo and nocebo effects. However, the investigation of their respective contribution to placebo and nocebo responses is rather difficult because most placebo and nocebo manipulations are contaminated by pre-existing treatment expectancies resulting from a learning history of previous medical interventions. To circumvent any resemblance to classical treatments, a purely psychological placebo-nocebo manipulation was established, namely, the "visual stripe pattern-induced modulation of pain." To this end, experience and expectation regarding the effects of different visual cues (stripe patterns) on pain were varied across 3 different groups, with either only placebo instruction (expectation), placebo conditioning (experience), or both (expectation + experience) applied. Only the combined manipulation (expectation + experience) revealed significant behavioral and physiological placebo-nocebo effects on pain. Two subsequent experiments, which, in addition to placebo and nocebo cues, included a neutral control condition further showed that especially nocebo responses were more easily induced by this psychological placebo and nocebo manipulation. The results emphasize the great effect of psychological processes on placebo and nocebo effects. Particularly, nocebo effects should be addressed more thoroughly and carefully considered in clinical practice to prevent the accidental induction of side effects.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Even purely psychological interventions that lack any resemblance to classical pain treatments might alter subjective and physiological pain correlates. A manipulation of treatment expectation and actual treatment experience were mandatory to elicit this effect. Nocebo effects were especially induced, which indicated the necessity for prevention of accidental side effects besides exploitation of placebo responses.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany. Electronic address: philipp.reicherts@uni-wuerzburg.de.
authors.forename: Philipp
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Reicherts
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany.
authors.forename: Antje B M
authors.initials: AB
authors.lastname: Gerdes
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.
authors.forename: Paul
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Pauli
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.
authors.forename: Matthias J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Wieser
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D003213:Conditioning, Psychological; D003463:Cues; D005260:Female; D005712:Galvanic Skin Response; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D064786:Nocebo Effect; D010146:Pain / Q000523:psychology*; D058748:Pain Perception / Q000502:physiology*; D015990:Placebo Effect; D011897:Random Allocation; D055815:Young Adult
keywords: Psychological placebo intervention; expectation; experience; nocebo hyperalgesia; placebo hypoalgesia