title: PREVALENCE, PATHOLOGY, AND RISK FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH STREPTOCOCCUS PHOCAE INFECTION IN SOUTHERN SEA OTTERS (ENHYDRA LUTRIS NEREIS), 2004-10.
abstract: Recent studies have implicated beta-hemolytic streptococci as opportunistic pathogens of marine mammals, including southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis), but little is known about their prevalence or pathophysiology. Herein, we focus on risk factors for sea otter infection by a single beta-hemolytic streptococcal species, Streptococcus phocae. Streptococcus phocae was first identified as a marine mammal pathogen in 1994, and the first report in southern sea otters was in 2009. Its broad host range encompasses fish, pinnipeds, cetaceans, and mustelids, with S. phocae now recognized as an important pathogen of marine species worldwide. We assessed risk factors and lesion patterns for S. phocae infection in southern sea otters. Using archival necropsy data, S. phocae prevalence was 40.5% in fresh dead otters examined 2004-10. Skin trauma of any type was identified as a significant risk factor for S. phocae infection. The risk of infection was similar regardless of the cause and relative severity of skin trauma, including mating or fight wounds, shark bite, and anthropogenic trauma. Streptococcus phocae-infected sea otters were also more likely to present with abscesses or bacterial septicemia. Our findings highlight the importance of S. phocae as an opportunistic pathogen of sea otters and suggest that the most likely portal of entry is damaged skin. Even tiny skin breaks appear to facilitate bacterial colonization, invasion, abscess formation, and systemic spread. Our data provide important insights for management and care of marine species.
authors.affiliation: 1  Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research Center, California Department of Fish and Wildlife, 1451 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, California 95060, USA.|2  National Centre for Zoonosis Research, University of Liverpool, School of Veterinary Science, Leahurst Campus, Chester High Road, Neston CH64 7TE, UK.
authors.forename: Georgina
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Bartlett
authors.affiliation: 3  Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, 1089 Veterinary Medicine Drive, Davis, California 95616, USA.
authors.forename: Woutrina
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Smith
authors.affiliation: 1  Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research Center, California Department of Fish and Wildlife, 1451 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, California 95060, USA.
authors.forename: Clare
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Dominik
authors.affiliation: 1  Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research Center, California Department of Fish and Wildlife, 1451 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, California 95060, USA.
authors.forename: Francesca
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Batac
authors.affiliation: 1  Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research Center, California Department of Fish and Wildlife, 1451 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, California 95060, USA.
authors.forename: Erin
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Dodd
authors.affiliation: 4  Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, California 95616, USA.
authors.forename: Barbara A
authors.initials: BA
authors.lastname: Byrne
authors.affiliation: 5  William R. Pritchard Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, 1 Garrod Drive, Davis, California 95616, USA.
authors.forename: Spencer
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Jang
authors.affiliation: 1  Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research Center, California Department of Fish and Wildlife, 1451 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, California 95060, USA.
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Jessup
authors.affiliation: 2  National Centre for Zoonosis Research, University of Liverpool, School of Veterinary Science, Leahurst Campus, Chester High Road, Neston CH64 7TE, UK.
authors.forename: Julian
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Chantrey
authors.affiliation: 1  Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research Center, California Department of Fish and Wildlife, 1451 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, California 95060, USA.|3  Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, 1089 Veterinary Medicine Drive, Davis, California 95616, USA.
authors.forename: Melissa
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Miller
mesh_terms: D000367:Age Factors; D000818:Animals; D002140:California / Q000453:epidemiology; D005260:Female; D016015:Logistic Models; D008297:Male; D010041:Otters / Q000293:injuries; D015995:Prevalence; D012307:Risk Factors; D012621:Seasons; D012737:Sex Factors; D012867:Skin / Q000293:injuries / Q000382:microbiology; D013290:Streptococcal Infections / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology / Q000473:pathology / Q000662:veterinary*
keywords: Abscess; Streptococcus phocae; beta-hemolytic streptococci; mating trauma; sepsis; skin wound; southern sea otter (Enhydra lutris nereis)