title: Urban-rural differences in daily time-activity patterns, occupational activity and housing characteristics.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  There is evidence that rural residents experience a health disadvantage compared to urban residents, associated with a greater prevalence of health risk factors and socioeconomic differences. We examined differences between urban and rural Canadians using data from the Canadian Human Activity Pattern Survey (CHAPS) 2.
  
  
  METHODS
  Data were collected from 1460 respondents in two rural areas (Haldimand-Norfolk, Ontario and Annapolis Valley-Kings County, Nova Scotia) and 3551 respondents in five urban areas (Vancouver, Edmonton, Toronto, Montreal, and Halifax) using a 24-h recall diary and supplementary questionnaires administered using computer-assisted telephone interviews. We evaluated differences in time-activity patterns, occupational activity, and housing characteristics between rural and urban populations using multivariable linear and logistic regression models adjusted for design as well as demographic and socioeconomic covariates. Taylor linearization method and design-adjusted Wald tests were used to test statistical significance.
  
  
  RESULTS
  After adjustment for demographic and socioeconomic covariates, rural children, adults and seniors spent on average 0.7 (p < 0.05), 1.2 (p < 0.001), and 0.9 (p < 0.001) more hours outdoors per day respectively than urban counterparts. 23.1% (95% CI: 19.0-27.2%) of urban and 37.8% (95% CI: 31.2-44.4%) of rural employed populations reported working outdoors and the distributions of job skill level and industry differed significantly (p < 0.001) between urban and rural residents. In particular, 11.4% of rural residents vs. 4.9% of urban residents were employed in unskilled jobs, and 11.5% of rural residents vs. <0.5% of urban residents were employ in primary industry. Rural residents were also more likely than urban residents to report spending time near gas or diesel powered equipment other than vehicles (16.9% vs. 5.2%, p < 0.001), more likely to report wood as a heating fuel (9.8% vs. <0.1%; p < 0.001 for difference in distribution of heating fuels), less likely to have an air conditioner (43.0% vs. 57.2%, p < 0.001), and more likely to smoke (29.1% vs. 19.0 %, p < 0.001). Private wells were the main water source in rural areas (68.6%) in contrast to public water systems (97.6%) in urban areas (p < 0.001). Despite these differences, no differences in self-reported health status were observed between urban and rural residents.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We identified a number of differences between urban and rural residents, which provide evidence pertinent to the urban-rural health disparity.
authors.affiliation: Air Health Effects Assessment Division, Health Canada, 269 Laurier Ave W, PL 4903C, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0K9, Canada. carlyn.matz@hc-sc.gc.ca.
authors.forename: Carlyn J
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: Matz
authors.affiliation: Population Studies Division, Health Canada, 445-757 West Hasting St., Federal Tower, Vancouver, BC, V6C 1A1, Canada. dave.stieb@hc-sc.gc.ca.
authors.forename: David M
authors.initials: DM
authors.lastname: Stieb
authors.affiliation: Population Studies Division, Health Canada, 50 Colombine Driveway, Tunney's Pasture, PL 0801A, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0K9, Canada. orly.brion@hc-sc.gc.ca.
authors.forename: Orly
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Brion
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000367:Age Factors; D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D002170:Canada; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D004781:Environmental Exposure / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D005260:Female; D054624:Health Status Disparities; D006306:Health Surveys; D006798:Housing / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D006802:Human Activities / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D008019:Life Style; D016014:Linear Models; D016015:Logistic Models; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009790:Occupations / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D012423:Rural Health / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D013997:Time Factors; D014504:Urban Health / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D055815:Young Adult