title: Identification of structural alerts for liver and kidney toxicity using repeated dose toxicity data.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The potential for a compound to cause hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity is a matter of extreme interest for human health risk assessment. To assess liver and kidney toxicity, repeated-dose toxicity (RDT) studies are conducted mainly on rodents. However, these tests are expensive, time-consuming and require large numbers of animals. For early toxicity screening, in silico models can be applied, reducing the costs, time and animals used. Among in silico approaches, structure-activity relationship (SAR) methods, based on the identification of chemical substructures (structural alerts, SAs) related to a particular activity (toxicity), are widely employed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We identified and evaluated some SAs related to liver and kidney toxicity, using RDT data on rats taken from the hazard evaluation support system (HESS) database. We considered only SAs that gave the best percentages of true positives (TP).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  It was not possible to assign an unambiguous mode of action for all the SAs, but a mechanistic explanation is provided for some of them. Such achievements may help in the early identification of liver and renal toxicity of substances.
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Toxicology, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Via La Masa 19, 20159 Milan, Italy.
authors.forename: Fabiola
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Pizzo
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Toxicology, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Via La Masa 19, 20159 Milan, Italy ; Dipartimento di Farmacia-Scienze del Farmaco, Università degli Studi di Bari "Aldo Moro", Bari, Italy.
authors.forename: Domenico
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Gadaleta
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Toxicology, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Via La Masa 19, 20159 Milan, Italy.
authors.forename: Anna
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Lombardo
authors.affiliation: Dipartimento di Farmacia-Scienze del Farmaco, Università degli Studi di Bari "Aldo Moro", Bari, Italy.
authors.forename: Orazio
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Nicolotti
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Toxicology, IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Via La Masa 19, 20159 Milan, Italy.
authors.forename: Emilio
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Benfenati
keywords: In silico; Kidney; Liver; Mechanism of action; Structural alerts; Toxicity