title: Anticipatory and consummatory effects of (hedonic) chocolate intake are associated with increased circulating levels of the orexigenic peptide ghrelin and endocannabinoids in obese adults.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Hedonic hunger refers to consumption of food just for pleasure and not to maintain energy homeostasis. Recently, consumption of food for pleasure was reported to be associated with increased circulating levels of both the orexigenic peptide ghrelin and the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol (2-AG) in normal-weight subjects. To date, the effects of hedonic hunger, and in particular of chocolate craving, on these mediators in obese subjects are still unknown.
  
  
  METHODS
  To explore the role of some gastrointestinal orexigenic and anorexigenic peptides and endocannabinoids (and some related congeners) in chocolate consumption, we measured changes in circulating levels of ghrelin, glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), peptide YY (PYY), anandamide (AEA), 2-AG, palmitoylethanolamide (PEA), and oleoylethanolamide (OEA) in 10 satiated severely obese subjects after consumption of chocolate and, on a separate day, of a non-palatable isocaloric food with the same bromatologic composition. Evaluation of hunger and satiety was also performed by visual analogic scale.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The anticipatory phase and the consumption of food for pleasure were associated with increased circulating levels of ghrelin, AEA, 2-AG, and OEA. In contrast, the levels of GLP-1, PYY, and PEA did not differ before and after the exposure/ingestion of either chocolate or non-palatable foods. Hunger and satiety were higher and lower, respectively, in the hedonic session than in the non-palatable one.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  When motivation to eat is generated by exposure to, and consumption of, chocolate a peripheral activation of specific endogenous rewarding chemical signals, including ghrelin, AEA, and 2-AG, is observed in obese subjects. Although preliminary, these findings predict the effectiveness of ghrelin and endocannabinoid antagonists in the treatment of obesity.
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy; antonello.rigamonti@guest.unimi.it.
authors.forename: Antonello E
authors.initials: AE
authors.lastname: Rigamonti
authors.affiliation: Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Pozzuoli, Italy.
authors.forename: Fabiana
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Piscitelli
authors.affiliation: Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Pozzuoli, Italy.
authors.forename: Teresa
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Aveta
authors.affiliation: Istituto Auxologico Italiano, IRCCS, Experimental Laboratory for Auxo-endocrinological Research, Milan and Verbania, Italy.
authors.forename: Fiorenza
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Agosti
authors.affiliation: Istituto Auxologico Italiano, IRCCS, Experimental Laboratory for Auxo-endocrinological Research, Milan and Verbania, Italy.
authors.forename: Alessandra
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: De Col
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy.
authors.forename: Silvia
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Bini
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy.
authors.forename: Silvano G
authors.initials: SG
authors.lastname: Cella
authors.affiliation: Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Pozzuoli, Italy.
authors.forename: Vincenzo
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Di Marzo
authors.affiliation: Istituto Auxologico Italiano, IRCCS, Experimental Laboratory for Auxo-endocrinological Research, Milan and Verbania, Italy.|Istituto Auxologico Italiano, IRCCS, Division of Metabolic Diseases, Verbania, Italy.
authors.forename: Alessandro
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Sartorio
keywords: GLP-1; PYY; endocannabinoids; ghrelin; hunger; obesity; palatable food; satiety