title: Reconstruction of 3D genome architecture via a two-stage algorithm.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The three-dimensional (3D) configuration of chromosomes within the eukaryote nucleus is an important factor for several cellular functions, including gene expression regulation, and has also been linked with cancer-causing translocation events. While visualization of such architecture remains limited to low resolutions, the ability to infer structures at increasing resolutions has been enabled by recently-devised chromosome conformation capture techniques. In particular, when coupled with next generation sequencing, such methods yield an inventory of genome-wide chromatin contacts or interactions. Various algorithms have been advanced to operate on such contact data to produce reconstructed 3D configurations. Studies have shown that these reconstructions can provide added value over raw interaction data with respect to downstream biological insights. However, only limited, low-resolution reconstructions have been realized for mammals due to computational bottlenecks.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Here we propose a two-stage algorithm to partially overcome these computational barriers. The central idea is to initially utilize existing reconstruction techniques on an individual chromosome basis, using intra-chromosomal contacts, and then to relatively position these chromosome-level reconstructions using inter-chromosomal contacts. This two-stage strategy represents a natural approach in view of the within- versus between- chromosome distribution of contacts. It can increase resolution ≈ 20 fold for mouse and human. After describing the algorithm we present 3D architectures for mouse embryonic stem cells and human lymphoblastoid cells. We evaluate the impact of several factors on reconstruction reproducibility and explore a variety of sampling schemes. We further analyze replicate data at differing resolutions obtained from recently devised in situ Hi-C assays. In all instances we demonstrate insensitivity of the whole-genome 3D reconstruction obtained by the two-stage algorithm to the sampling strategy used.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our two-stage algorithm has the potential to significantly increase the resolution of 3D genome reconstructions. The improvements are such that we can progress from 1 Mb resolution to 100 kb resolution, notable since this latter value has been identified as critical to inferring topological domains in analyses performed on the contact (rather than 3D) level.
authors.affiliation: Division of Bioinformatics, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, 550 16th Street, San Francisco, 94158, CA, USA. mark@biostat.ucsf.edu.
authors.forename: Mark R
authors.initials: MR
authors.lastname: Segal
authors.affiliation: Division of Bioinformatics, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, 550 16th Street, San Francisco, 94158, CA, USA. henrik.bengtsson@ucsf.edu.
authors.forename: Henrik L
authors.initials: HL
authors.lastname: Bengtsson
mesh_terms: D000465:Algorithms; D000818:Animals; D002843:Chromatin / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000235:genetics; D002875:Chromosomes / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000235:genetics; D053595:Embryonic Stem Cells / Q000737:chemistry; D016678:Genome; D059014:High-Throughput Nucleotide Sequencing / Q000379:methods*; D006801:Humans; D008214:Lymphocytes / Q000737:chemistry; D051379:Mice; D008958:Models, Molecular; D008968:Molecular Conformation; D015203:Reproducibility of Results
chemical_list: D002843:Chromatin