title: A review of animal models of obsessive-compulsive disorder: a focus on developmental, immune, endocrine and behavioral models.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a neuropsychiatric condition characterized by intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and/or repetitive behaviors (compulsions). Several models of OCD exist, many which employ behaviors such as over-grooming or hoarding as correlates for compulsive behaviors - often using a response to serotonergic agents as evidence for their validity. Recent discoveries in the genetics of OCD and the identification of aberrancies of glutamatergic, hormonal, and immune pathways in the OCD phenotype highlight a need to review existing of animal models of OCD. The focus of attention to these pathways may lead to possible new targets for drug discovery.
  
  
  METHODS
  In this review, the authors describe frameworks for animal models in OCD conceptualized as either biological (e.g., developmental, genetic, and endocrine pathways), or behavioral (e.g., repetitive grooming, and stereotypies). In addition, the authors give special attention to the emerging role of glutamate in OCD.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  While many animal models for OCD demonstrate pathologic repetitive behavior phenotypes, which are relieved by serotoninergic agents, animal models based on reversal learning, perseverative responding, and neurodevelopmental mechanisms represent robust new paradigms. Glutamatergic influences in these new animal models suggest that drug discovery using neuroprotective approaches may represent a new stage for pharmacologic developments in OCD.
authors.affiliation: a Department of Psychiatry , Johns Hopkins University , 1800 Orleans St. - 12th floor, Baltimore , MD 21287 , USA.
authors.forename: Marco
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Grados
authors.affiliation: b Department of Medicine , Dow University of Health Sciences , Karachi , Pakistan.
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Prazak
authors.affiliation: c Department of Psychology Grand Forks , University of North Dakota , ND , USA.
authors.forename: Aneeqa
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Saif
authors.affiliation: a Department of Psychiatry , Johns Hopkins University , 1800 Orleans St. - 12th floor, Baltimore , MD 21287 , USA.
authors.forename: Andrew
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Halls
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001522:Behavior, Animal / Q000187:drug effects; D004195:Disease Models, Animal; D055808:Drug Discovery / Q000379:methods*; D018698:Glutamic Acid / Q000378:metabolism; D006801:Humans; D018696:Neuroprotective Agents / Q000494:pharmacology; D009771:Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000235:genetics / Q000503:physiopathology*; D010641:Phenotype; D018490:Serotonin Agents / Q000494:pharmacology
chemical_list: D018696:Neuroprotective Agents; D018490:Serotonin Agents; D018698:Glutamic Acid
keywords: animal model; glutamate; obsessive-compulsive; serotonin