title: Decreasing the number of small eating occasions (<15 % of total energy intake) regardless of the time of day may be important to improve diet quality but not adiposity: a cross-sectional study in British children and adolescents.
abstract: Evidence of associations between meal frequency (MF) and snack frequency (SF) and diet and obesity in young populations is limited. This cross-sectional study examined MF and SF in relation to dietary intake and adiposity measures in British children aged 4-10 years (n 818) and adolescents aged 11-18 years (n 818). Based on data from a 7-d weighed dietary record, all eating occasions were divided into meals or snacks on the basis of contribution to energy intake (≥15 or <15 %) or time (06.00-10.00, 12.00-15.00 and 18.00-21.00 hours or others). All measures of MF and SF showed positive associations with energy intake, except for MF based on energy contribution in children. Irrespective of the definition of snacks, SF was associated with higher intakes of soft drinks, confectionery and total sugar, lower intakes of cereals, fish, meat, protein, PUFA, starch and dietary fibre, and a lower diet quality (assessed by the Mediterranean diet score, except for SF based on energy contribution in adolescents). MF based on time, but not based on energy contribution, was associated with higher intakes of confectionery and total sugar, lower intakes of fish, protein, PUFA and starch, and, only in children, a lower diet quality. All measures of MF and SF showed no association with adiposity measures. In conclusion, this cross-sectional study in British children and adolescents suggests that decreasing the number of small eating occasions (<15 % of total energy intake) regardless of the time of day may be important to improve diet quality but not adiposity.
authors.affiliation: 1Department of Nutrition,School of Human Cultures,University of Shiga Prefecture,Shiga,Hikone,Shiga 522 8533,Japan.
authors.forename: Kentaro
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Murakami
authors.affiliation: 2Northern Ireland Centre for Food and Health,Ulster University,Coleraine BT52 1SA,UK.
authors.forename: M Barbara E
authors.initials: MB
authors.lastname: Livingstone
mesh_terms: D050154:Adiposity; D000293:Adolescent; D015992:Body Mass Index; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D004032:Diet; D019422:Dietary Sucrose / Q000008:administration & dosage; D002149:Energy Intake; D005247:Feeding Behavior; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D062407:Meals; D009753:Nutritive Value; D062410:Snacks; D013997:Time Factors; D006113:United Kingdom
chemical_list: D019422:Dietary Sucrose
keywords: Adolescents; Children; EER estimated energy requirement; EF eating frequency; EI energy intake; MDS Mediterranean diet score; MF meal frequency; MFenergy%
                  MF determined based on percentage contribution to total EI; MFtime
                  MF determined based on the time consumed; Meal frequency; NDNS National Diet and Nutrition Survey; SF snack frequency; SFenergy%
                  SF determined based on percentage contribution to total EI; SFtime
                  SF determined based on the time consumed; Snack frequency; WHtR waist:height ratio