title: Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in river and ground/drinking water of the Ganges River basin: Emissions and implications for human exposure.
abstract: Many perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are ubiquitous environmental contaminants. They have been widely used in production processes and daily-use products or may result from degradation of precursor compounds in products or the environment. India, with its developing industrialization and population moving from traditional to contemporary lifestyles, represents an interesting case study to investigate PFAS emission and exposure along steep environmental and socioeconomic gradients. This study assesses PFAS concentrations in river and groundwater (used in this region as drinking water) from several locations along the Ganges River and estimates direct emissions, specifically for PFOS and PFOA. 15 PFAS were frequently detected in the river with the highest concentrations observed for PFHxA (0.4-4.7 ng L(-1)) and PFBS (<MQL - 10.2 ng L(-1)) among PFCAs and PFSAs, respectively. Prevalence of short-chain PFAS indicates that the effects of PFOA and PFOS substitution are visible in environmental samples from India. The spatial pattern of C5-C7 PFCAs co-varied with that of PFOS suggesting similar emission drivers. PFDA and PFNA had much lower concentrations and covaried with PFOA especially in two hotspots downstream of Kanpur and Patna. PFOS and PFOA emissions to the river varied dramatically along the transect (0.20-190 and 0.03-150 g d(-1), respectively). PFOS emission pattern could be explained by the number of urban residents in the subcatchment (rather than total population). Per-capita emissions were lower than in many developed countries. In groundwater, PFBA (<MQL - 9.2 ng L(-1)) and PFBS (<MQL - 4.9 ng L(-1)) had the highest concentrations among PFCAs and PFSAs, respectively. Concentrations and trends in groundwater were generally similar to those observed in surface water suggesting the aquifer was contaminated by wastewater receiving river water. Daily PFAS exposure intakes through drinking water were below safety thresholds for oral non-cancer risk in all age groups.
authors.affiliation: TERI University, 10 Institutional Area, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi 110070, India. Electronic address: brijmsharma05@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Brij Mohan
authors.initials: BM
authors.lastname: Sharma
authors.affiliation: The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), Darbari Seth Block, India Habitat Centre, Lodhi Road, New Delhi 110003, India.
authors.forename: Girija K
authors.initials: GK
authors.lastname: Bharat
authors.affiliation: TERI University, 10 Institutional Area, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi 110070, India; The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), Darbari Seth Block, India Habitat Centre, Lodhi Road, New Delhi 110003, India.
authors.forename: Shresth
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Tayal
authors.affiliation: Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA), Gaustadalléen 21, Oslo 0349, Norway.
authors.forename: Thorjørn
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Larssen
authors.affiliation: Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment (RECETOX), Masaryk University, Brno 62500, Czech Republic.
authors.forename: Jitka
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Bečanová
authors.affiliation: Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment (RECETOX), Masaryk University, Brno 62500, Czech Republic.
authors.forename: Pavlína
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Karásková
authors.affiliation: School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QY, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Paul G
authors.initials: PG
authors.lastname: Whitehead
authors.affiliation: Department of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-75007 Uppsala, Sweden.
authors.forename: Martyn N
authors.initials: MN
authors.lastname: Futter
authors.affiliation: Enmosys, Glen Ellyn, IL 60138, USA.
authors.forename: Dan
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Butterfield
authors.affiliation: Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA), Gaustadalléen 21, Oslo 0349, Norway; Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment (RECETOX), Masaryk University, Brno 62500, Czech Republic. Electronic address: luca.nizzetto@niva.no.
authors.forename: Luca
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Nizzetto
mesh_terms: D060766:Drinking Water / Q000032:analysis* / Q000592:standards; D004784:Environmental Monitoring / Q000379:methods*; D005466:Fluorocarbons / Q000032:analysis*; D060587:Groundwater / Q000737:chemistry*; D006801:Humans; D007194:India; D045483:Rivers / Q000737:chemistry*; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000032:analysis*
chemical_list: D060766:Drinking Water; D005466:Fluorocarbons; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical
keywords: Emissions; Ganges River; Groundwater; Human exposure; Perfluoroalkyl substances