title: Being cosmopolitan: evolutionary history and phylogeography of a specialized raptor, the Osprey Pandion haliaetus.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) is one of only six bird species with an almost world-wide distribution. We aimed at clarifying its phylogeographic structure and elucidating its taxonomic status (as it is currently separated into four subspecies). We tested six biogeographical scenarios to explain how the species' distribution and differentiation took place in the past and how such a specialized raptor was able to colonize most of the globe.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Using two mitochondrial genes (cyt b and ND2), the Osprey appeared structured into four genetic groups representing quasi non-overlapping geographical regions. The group Indo-Australasia corresponds to the cristatus ssp, as well as the group Europe-Africa to the haliaetus ssp. In the Americas, we found a single lineage for both carolinensis and ridgwayi ssp, whereas in north-east Asia (Siberia and Japan), we discovered a fourth new lineage. The four lineages are well differentiated, contrasting with the low genetic variability observed within each clade. Historical demographic reconstructions suggested that three of the four lineages experienced stable trends or slight demographic increases. Molecular dating estimates the initial split between lineages at about 1.16 Ma ago, in the Early Pleistocene.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our biogeographical inference suggests a pattern of colonization from the American continent towards the Old World. Populations of the Palearctic would represent the last outcomes of this colonization. At a global scale the Osprey complex may be composed of four different Evolutionary Significant Units, which should be treated as specific management units. Our study brought essential genetic clarifications, which have implications for conservation strategies in identifying distinct lineages across which birds should not be artificially moved through exchange/reintroduction schemes.
authors.affiliation: CEFE UMR 5175, CNRS - Université de Montpellier - Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier - EPHE, 1919 Route de Mende, 34293, Montpellier cedex 5, France. flaviomonti00@gmail.com.|Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Ferrara, via Borsari 46, I-44121, Ferrara, Italy. flaviomonti00@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Flavio
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Monti
authors.affiliation: CEFE UMR 5175, CNRS - Université de Montpellier - Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier - EPHE, 1919 Route de Mende, 34293, Montpellier cedex 5, France. olivier.duriez@cefe.cnrs.fr.
authors.forename: Olivier
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Duriez
authors.affiliation: CEFE UMR 5175, CNRS - Université de Montpellier - Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier - EPHE, 1919 Route de Mende, 34293, Montpellier cedex 5, France. veronique.arnal@cefe.cnrs.fr.
authors.forename: Véronique
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Arnal
authors.affiliation: Réserve Naturelle Scandola, Parc Naturel Règional de Corse, 20245, Galeria, France. pnrc.scandola-jm@wanadoo.fr.
authors.forename: Jean-Marie
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Dominici
authors.affiliation: Maremma Natural History Museum, Strada Corsini 5, 58100, Grosseto, Italy. direzione@museonaturalemaremma.it.
authors.forename: Andrea
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Sforzi
authors.affiliation: Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Ferrara, via Borsari 46, I-44121, Ferrara, Italy. leofusani@gmail.com.|Department of Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, & Konrad Lorenz Institute for Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria. leofusani@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Leonida
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Fusani
authors.affiliation: CEFE UMR 5175, CNRS - Université de Montpellier - Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier - EPHE, 1919 Route de Mende, 34293, Montpellier cedex 5, France. david.gremillet@cefe.cnrs.fr.|Percy FitzPatrick Institute, DST-NRF Centre of Excellence, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa. david.gremillet@cefe.cnrs.fr.
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Grémillet
authors.affiliation: CEFE UMR 5175, CNRS - Université de Montpellier - Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier - EPHE, 1919 Route de Mende, 34293, Montpellier cedex 5, France. claudine.montgelard@cefe.cnrs.fr.|Department of Zoology, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park, 2006, South Africa. claudine.montgelard@cefe.cnrs.fr.
authors.forename: Claudine
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Montgelard
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D005075:Biological Evolution; D003710:Demography; D046093:Falconiformes / Q000145:classification* / Q000235:genetics*; D050259:Genes, Mitochondrial; D010802:Phylogeny; D058974:Phylogeography