title: Bony labyrinth shape variation in extant Carnivora: a case study of Musteloidea.
abstract: The bony labyrinth provides a proxy for the morphology of the inner ear, a primary cognitive organ involved in hearing, body perception in space, and balance in vertebrates. Bony labyrinth shape variations often are attributed to phylogenetic and ecological factors. Here we use three-dimensional (3D) geometric morphometrics to examine the phylogenetic and ecological patterns of variation in the bony labyrinth morphology of the most species-rich and ecologically diversified traditionally recognized superfamily of Carnivora, the Musteloidea (e.g. weasels, otters, badgers, red panda, skunks, raccoons, coatis). We scanned the basicrania of specimens belonging to 31 species using high-resolution X-ray computed micro-tomography (μCT) to virtually reconstruct 3D models of the bony labyrinths. Labyrinth morphology is captured by a set of six fixed landmarks on the vestibular and cochlear systems, and 120 sliding semilandmarks, slid at the center of the semicircular canals and the cochlea. We found that the morphology of this sensory structure is not significantly influenced by bony labyrinth size, in comparisons across all musteloids or in any of the individual traditionally recognized families (Mephitidae, Procyonidae, Mustelidae). PCA (principal components analysis) of shape data revealed that bony labyrinth morphology is clearly distinguishable between musteloid families, and permutation tests of the Kmult statistic confirmed that the bony labyrinth shows a phylogenetic signal in musteloids and in most mustelids. Both the vestibular and cochlear regions display morphological differences among the musteloids sampled, associated with the size and curvature of the semicircular canals, angles between canals, presence or absence of a secondary common crus, degree of lateral compression of the vestibule, orientation of the cochlea relative to the semicircular canals, proportions of the cochlea, and degree of curvature of its turns. We detected a significant ecological signal in the bony labyrinth shape of musteloids, differentiating semi-aquatic taxa from non-aquatic ones (the taxa assigned to terrestrial, arboreal, semi-arboreal, and semi-fossorial categories), and a significant signal for mustelids, differentiating the bony labyrinths of terrestrial, semi-arboreal, arboreal, semi-fossorial and semi-aquatic species from each other. Otters and minks are distinguished from non-aquatic musteloids by an oval rather than circular anterior canal, sinuous rather than straight lateral canal, and acute rather than straight angle between the posterior and lateral semicircular canals - each of these morphological characters has been related previously to animal sensitivity for detecting head motion in space.
authors.affiliation: Division of Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY, USA.|Institut des Sciences de l'Évolution de Montpellier (ISE-M UMR-CNRS 5554) - Université Montpellier II, Montpellier, France.
authors.forename: Camille
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Grohé
authors.affiliation: Division of Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY, USA.
authors.forename: Z Jack
authors.initials: ZJ
authors.lastname: Tseng
authors.affiliation: Institut des Sciences de l'Évolution de Montpellier (ISE-M UMR-CNRS 5554) - Université Montpellier II, Montpellier, France.
authors.forename: Renaud
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Lebrun
authors.affiliation: Institut de Paléoprimatologie, Paléontologie Humaine: Évolution et Paléoenvironnements (IPHEP UMR-CNRS 7262) - Université de Poitiers, Poitiers, France.
authors.forename: Renaud
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Boistel
authors.affiliation: Division of Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY, USA.|Richard Gilder Graduate School, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY, USA.
authors.forename: John J
authors.initials: JJ
authors.lastname: Flynn
mesh_terms: D059925:Anatomic Landmarks; D000818:Animals; D005075:Biological Evolution; D007758:Ear, Inner / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D021621:Imaging, Three-Dimensional; D012889:Mephitidae / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D045969:Mustelidae / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D010802:Phylogeny; D025341:Principal Component Analysis; D045988:Procyonidae / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D055114:X-Ray Microtomography
keywords: Musteloidea; allometry; inner ear; locomotion; morphology; phylogeny; semilandmark sliding; three-dimensional geometric morphometrics