title: Tip cell overtaking occurs as a side effect of sprouting in computational models of angiogenesis.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  During angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels from existing ones, endothelial cells differentiate into tip and stalk cells, after which one tip cell leads the sprout. More recently, this picture has changed. It has become clear that endothelial cells compete for the tip position during angiogenesis: a phenomenon named tip cell overtaking. The biological function of tip cell overtaking is not yet known. From experimental observations, it is unclear to what extent tip cell overtaking is a side effect of sprouting or to what extent it is regulated through a VEGF-Dll4-Notch signaling network and thus might have a biological function. To address this question, we studied tip cell overtaking in computational models of angiogenic sprouting in absence and in presence of VEGF-Dll4-Notch signaling.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We looked for tip cell overtaking in two existing Cellular Potts models of angiogenesis. In these simulation models angiogenic sprouting-like behavior emerges from a small set of plausible cell behaviors. In the first model, cells aggregate through contact-inhibited chemotaxis. In the second model the endothelial cells assume an elongated shape and aggregate through (non-inhibited) chemotaxis. In both these sprouting models the endothelial cells spontaneously migrate forwards and backwards within sprouts, suggesting that tip cell overtaking might occur as a side effect of sprouting. In accordance with other experimental observations, in our simulations the cells' tendency to occupy the tip position can be regulated when two cell lines with different levels of Vegfr2 expression are contributing to sprouting (mosaic sprouting assay), where cell behavior is regulated by a simple VEGF-Dll4-Notch signaling network.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our modeling results suggest that tip cell overtaking can occur spontaneously due to the stochastic motion of cells during sprouting. Thus, tip cell overtaking and sprouting dynamics may be interdependent and should be studied and interpreted in combination. VEGF-Dll4-Notch can regulate the ability of cells to occupy the tip cell position in our simulations. We propose that the function of VEGF-Dll4-Notch signaling might not be to regulate which cell ends up at the tip, but to assure that the cell that randomly ends up at the tip position acquires the tip cell phenotype.
authors.affiliation: Life Sciences, Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica (CWI), Science Park 123, 1098 XG, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. boas@cwi.nl.|Mathematical Institute, Leiden University, Niels Bohrweg 1, 2333 CA, Leiden, The Netherlands. boas@cwi.nl.
authors.forename: Sonja E M
authors.initials: SE
authors.lastname: Boas
authors.affiliation: Life Sciences, Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica (CWI), Science Park 123, 1098 XG, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Roeland.merks@cwi.nl.|Mathematical Institute, Leiden University, Niels Bohrweg 1, 2333 CA, Leiden, The Netherlands. Roeland.merks@cwi.nl.
authors.forename: Roeland M H
authors.initials: RM
authors.lastname: Merks
mesh_terms: D002454:Cell Differentiation; D003198:Computer Simulation; D042783:Endothelial Cells / Q000166:cytology*; D005786:Gene Expression Regulation; D047908:Intracellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins / Q000378:metabolism; D008565:Membrane Proteins / Q000378:metabolism; D008954:Models, Biological; D018919:Neovascularization, Physiologic; D051880:Receptors, Notch / Q000378:metabolism; D015398:Signal Transduction; D042461:Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A / Q000378:metabolism
chemical_list: D047908:Intracellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins; D008565:Membrane Proteins; D051880:Receptors, Notch; D042461:Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A; C064045:delta protein