title: Associated factors for higher lead and cadmium blood levels, and reference values derived from general population of São Paulo, Brazil.
abstract: Human activities are associated with emissions of various metals into the environment, among which the heavy metals lead and cadmium stand out, as they pose a risk to human life even at low concentrations. Thus, accurate knowledge of the levels of these metals exhibited by the overall population, including children, is important. The aim of this study was to estimate the concentrations of lead and cadmium in the blood of adults, adolescents and children residing in the city of São Paulo, assess factors associated with higher lead and cadmium blood levels, and to establish reference values for this population. The study sample consisted of 669 adults over 20 years old, 264 adolescents aged 12 to 19 years old and 391 children under 11 years old from both genders. The samples were collected at the end of 2007 and during 2008 in different city zones. Higher blood lead concentration was significantly associated with gender, smoking, offal intake, area of residence and age. The blood cadmium concentration was significantly associated with gender, smoking, consumption of distilled beverages and age. The reference values of lead and cadmium established for adults above 20 years old were 33 μg/L and 0.6 μg/L, respectively, for adolescents (12 to 19 years old) were 31 μg/L and 0.6 μg/L, respectively and for children under 11 years old were 29 μg/L and 0.2 μg/L, respectively. The results of this study indicate that the exposure levels of the investigated population to lead and cadmium are low.
authors.affiliation: Instituto Adolfo Lutz, Centro de Materiais de Referência, Av. Dr. Arnaldo, 355, São Paulo, SP CEP 01246-000, Brazil. Electronic address: carmkira@ial.sp.gov.br.
authors.forename: Carmen Silvia
authors.initials: CS
authors.lastname: Kira
authors.affiliation: Instituto Adolfo Lutz, Centro de Materiais de Referência, Av. Dr. Arnaldo, 355, São Paulo, SP CEP 01246-000, Brazil.
authors.forename: Alice Momoyo
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Sakuma
authors.affiliation: Universidade Estadual de Campinas - UNICAMP, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Departamento de Clínica Médica, Centro de Controle de Intoxicações, Brazil.
authors.forename: Eduardo Mello
authors.initials: EM
authors.lastname: De Capitani
authors.affiliation: Secretaria de Estado da Saúde/SP, Coordenadoria de Controle de Doenças, Brazil.
authors.forename: Clarice Umbelino
authors.initials: CU
authors.lastname: de Freitas
authors.affiliation: Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Saúde Pública, Departamento de Epidemiologia, Brazil.
authors.forename: Maria Regina Alves
authors.initials: MRA
authors.lastname: Cardoso
authors.affiliation: Universidade de São Paulo - USP, Faculdade de Medicina, Departamento de Medicina Preventiva, Brazil.
authors.forename: Nelson
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Gouveia
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D001938:Brazil; D002104:Cadmium / Q000097:blood* / Q000592:standards; D002648:Child; D004781:Environmental Exposure / Q000592:standards / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D004785:Environmental Pollutants / Q000097:blood* / Q000592:standards; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007854:Lead / Q000097:blood* / Q000592:standards; D008297:Male; D012016:Reference Values; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D004785:Environmental Pollutants; D002104:Cadmium; D007854:Lead
keywords: Blood; Cadmium; Environmental health; Environmental monitoring; Lead; Reference values