title: An alternative covariance estimator to investigate genetic heterogeneity in populations.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  For genomic prediction and genome-wide association studies (GWAS) using mixed models, covariance between individuals is estimated using molecular markers. Based on the properties of mixed models, using available molecular data for prediction is optimal if this covariance is known. Under this assumption, adding individuals to the analysis should never be detrimental. However, some empirical studies showed that increasing training population size decreased prediction accuracy. Recently, results from theoretical models indicated that even if marker density is high and the genetic architecture of traits is controlled by many loci with small additive effects, the covariance between individuals, which depends on relationships at causal loci, is not always well estimated by the whole-genome kinship.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We propose an alternative covariance estimator named K-kernel, to account for potential genetic heterogeneity between populations that is characterized by a lack of genetic correlation, and to limit the information flow between a priori unknown populations in a trait-specific manner. This is similar to a multi-trait model and parameters are estimated by REML and, in extreme cases, it can allow for an independent genetic architecture between populations. As such, K-kernel is useful to study the problem of the design of training populations. K-kernel was compared to other covariance estimators or kernels to examine its fit to the data, cross-validated accuracy and suitability for GWAS on several datasets. It provides a significantly better fit to the data than the genomic best linear unbiased prediction model and, in some cases it performs better than other kernels such as the Gaussian kernel, as shown by an empirical null distribution. In GWAS simulations, alternative kernels control type I errors as well as or better than the classical whole-genome kinship and increase statistical power. No or small gains were observed in cross-validated prediction accuracy.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This alternative covariance estimator can be used to gain insight into trait-specific genetic heterogeneity by identifying relevant sub-populations that lack genetic correlation between them. Genetic correlation can be 0 between identified sub-populations by performing automatic selection of relevant sets of individuals to be included in the training population. It may also increase statistical power in GWAS.
authors.affiliation: Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Cornell University, 240 Emerson Hall, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA. nh269@cornell.edu.|Limagrain Europe, CS3911, 63720, Chappes, France. nh269@cornell.edu.
authors.forename: Nicolas
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Heslot
authors.affiliation: Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Cornell University, 240 Emerson Hall, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA. jeanluc.jannink@ars.usda.gov.|USDA-ARS, R.W. Holley Center for Agriculture and Health, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA. jeanluc.jannink@ars.usda.gov.
authors.forename: Jean-Luc
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Jannink
mesh_terms: D000465:Algorithms; D001947:Breeding; D003198:Computer Simulation; D066264:Datasets as Topic; D056726:Genetic Association Studies; D018740:Genetic Heterogeneity; D005819:Genetic Markers; D005828:Genetics, Population / Q000379:methods; D055106:Genome-Wide Association Study / Q000379:methods; D023281:Genomics / Q000379:methods; D008957:Models, Genetic; D015233:Models, Statistical; D019655:Quantitative Trait, Heritable; D015203:Reproducibility of Results
chemical_list: D005819:Genetic Markers