title: Stability and change in executive function abilities from late adolescence to early adulthood: A longitudinal twin study.
abstract: Executive functions (EFs)-the higher level cognitive abilities that enable us to control our own thoughts and actions-continue to develop into early adulthood, yet no longitudinal study has examined their stability during the important life transition from late adolescence to young adulthood. In this twin study (total N = 840 individuals from 424 families), we examined the stability of individual differences in 3 EF components across a 6-year period, from approximately age 17 years (Wave 1) to 23 years (Wave 2). Specifically, we address the following questions: (a) How stable are individual differences in multiple EFs across this time period? and (b) What (genetic and/or environmental) influences affect stability and change in EFs? Results indicated that individual differences in EFs are quite stable across this 6-year period (phenotypic latent variable correlations ranged from 0.86 to 1.0). However, there was evidence for change, particularly in the factor common to multiple EFs (Common EF). Multivariate twin models suggested that stability was due almost entirely to high genetic correlations across time; there was no new genetic variance at Wave 2. Change in Common EF was due to small but significant nonshared environmental influences at Wave 2 (15%). The results suggest that individual differences in EFs are quite heritable and stable by late adolescence, yet are still sensitive to environmental influences.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder.
authors.forename: Naomi P
authors.initials: NP
authors.lastname: Friedman
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder.
authors.forename: Akira
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Miyake
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder.
authors.forename: Lee J
authors.initials: LJ
authors.lastname: Altamirano
authors.affiliation: Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder.
authors.forename: Robin P
authors.initials: RP
authors.lastname: Corley
authors.affiliation: Division of Substance Dependence, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus.
authors.forename: Susan E
authors.initials: SE
authors.lastname: Young
authors.affiliation: Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado Boulder.
authors.forename: Sally Ann
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Rhea
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder.
authors.forename: John K
authors.initials: JK
authors.lastname: Hewitt
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D041923:Adolescent Development; D000367:Age Factors; D001288:Attention / Q000502:physiology; D056344:Executive Function / Q000502:physiology*; D005260:Female; D059647:Gene-Environment Interaction; D006801:Humans; D007206:Individuality; D007266:Inhibition, Psychological; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D009483:Neuropsychological Tests; D013028:Space Perception / Q000502:physiology; D013223:Statistics as Topic; D014429:Twins, Dizygotic; D014430:Twins, Monozygotic; D055815:Young Adult