title: Atypical valuation of monetary and cigarette rewards in substance dependent smokers.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Substance dependent (SD) relative to non-dependent (ND) individuals exhibit an attenuated reward positivity, an electrophysiological signal believed to index sensitivity of anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) to rewards. Here we asked whether this altered neural response reflects a specific devaluation of monetary rewards relative to drug-related rewards by ACC.
  
  
  METHODS
  We recorded the reward positivity from SD and ND individuals who currently smoke, following an overnight period of abstinence, while they engaged in two feedback tasks. In a money condition the feedback indicated either a monetary reward or no reward, and in a cigarette condition the feedback indicated either a drug-related reward or no reward.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Overall, cigarette relative to monetary rewards elicited a larger reward positivity. Further, for the subjects who engaged in the money condition first, the reward positivity was smaller for the SD compared to the ND participants, but for the subjects who engaged in the cigarette condition first, the reward positivity was larger for the SD compared to the ND participants.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our results suggest that the initial category of feedback "primed" the response of the ACC to the alternative feedback type on subsequent trials, and that SD and ND individuals responded differently to this priming effect.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We propose that for people who misuse addictive substances, the prospect of obtaining drug-related rewards engages the ACC to exert control over extended behaviors.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada; Centre de recherche du CHU Ste-Justine, University of Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Electronic address: travis.e.baker@gmail.ca.
authors.forename: Travis E
authors.initials: TE
authors.lastname: Baker
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.
authors.forename: Jonathan M A
authors.initials: JMA
authors.lastname: Wood
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.
authors.forename: Clay B
authors.initials: CB
authors.lastname: Holroyd
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D004569:Electroencephalography / Q000379:methods; D005260:Female; D006179:Gyrus Cinguli / Q000378:metabolism*; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D010775:Photic Stimulation / Q000379:methods; D011597:Psychomotor Performance / Q000502:physiology*; D012201:Reward; D062789:Tobacco Products / Q000191:economics; D014029:Tobacco Use Disorder / Q000191:economics / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000523:psychology*; D055815:Young Adult
keywords: Addiction; Anterior cingulate cortex; Midbrain dopamine system; Nicotine; Reinforcement learning; Reward positivity