title: Harnessing Hierarchical Nano- and Micro-Fabrication Technologies for Musculoskeletal Tissue Engineering.
abstract: Cells within a tissue are able to perceive, interpret and respond to the biophysical, biomechanical, and biochemical properties of the 3D extracellular matrix environment in which they reside. Such stimuli regulate cell adhesion, metabolic state, proliferation, migration, fate and lineage commitment, and ultimately, tissue morphogenesis and function. Current scaffold fabrication strategies in musculoskeletal tissue engineering seek to mimic the sophistication and comprehensiveness of nature to develop hierarchically assembled 3D implantable devices of different geometric dimensions (nano- to macrometric scales) that will offer control over cellular functions and ultimately achieve functional regeneration. Herein, advances and shortfalls of bottom-up (self-assembly, freeze-drying, rapid prototype, electrospinning) and top-down (imprinting) scaffold fabrication approaches, specific to musculoskeletal tissue engineering, are discussed and critically assessed.
authors.affiliation: Regenerative, Modular & Developmental Engineering Laboratory (REMODEL), Biosciences Research Building, National University of Ireland Galway (NUI Galway), Galway, Ireland.|Network of Excellence for Functional Biomaterials (NFB), Biosciences Research Building, National University of Ireland Galway (NUI Galway), Galway, Ireland.|Centre for Research in Medical Devices (CURAM), Biosciences Research Building, National University of Ireland Galway (NUI Galway), Galway, Ireland.
authors.forename: Sunny A
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Abbah
authors.affiliation: Regenerative, Modular & Developmental Engineering Laboratory (REMODEL), Biosciences Research Building, National University of Ireland Galway (NUI Galway), Galway, Ireland.|Network of Excellence for Functional Biomaterials (NFB), Biosciences Research Building, National University of Ireland Galway (NUI Galway), Galway, Ireland.|Centre for Research in Medical Devices (CURAM), Biosciences Research Building, National University of Ireland Galway (NUI Galway), Galway, Ireland.
authors.forename: Luis M
authors.initials: LM
authors.lastname: Delgado
authors.affiliation: Regenerative, Modular & Developmental Engineering Laboratory (REMODEL), Biosciences Research Building, National University of Ireland Galway (NUI Galway), Galway, Ireland.|Network of Excellence for Functional Biomaterials (NFB), Biosciences Research Building, National University of Ireland Galway (NUI Galway), Galway, Ireland.|Centre for Research in Medical Devices (CURAM), Biosciences Research Building, National University of Ireland Galway (NUI Galway), Galway, Ireland.
authors.forename: Ayesha
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Azeem
authors.affiliation: Regenerative, Modular & Developmental Engineering Laboratory (REMODEL), Biosciences Research Building, National University of Ireland Galway (NUI Galway), Galway, Ireland.|Network of Excellence for Functional Biomaterials (NFB), Biosciences Research Building, National University of Ireland Galway (NUI Galway), Galway, Ireland.|Centre for Research in Medical Devices (CURAM), Biosciences Research Building, National University of Ireland Galway (NUI Galway), Galway, Ireland.
authors.forename: Kieran
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Fuller
authors.affiliation: Regenerative, Modular & Developmental Engineering Laboratory (REMODEL), Biosciences Research Building, National University of Ireland Galway (NUI Galway), Galway, Ireland.|Network of Excellence for Functional Biomaterials (NFB), Biosciences Research Building, National University of Ireland Galway (NUI Galway), Galway, Ireland.|Centre for Research in Medical Devices (CURAM), Biosciences Research Building, National University of Ireland Galway (NUI Galway), Galway, Ireland.
authors.forename: Naledi
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Shologu
authors.affiliation: Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford University, CA, USA.
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Keeney
authors.affiliation: Network of Excellence for Functional Biomaterials (NFB), Biosciences Research Building, National University of Ireland Galway (NUI Galway), Galway, Ireland.|Centre for Research in Medical Devices (CURAM), Biosciences Research Building, National University of Ireland Galway (NUI Galway), Galway, Ireland.
authors.forename: Manus J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Biggs
authors.affiliation: Network of Excellence for Functional Biomaterials (NFB), Biosciences Research Building, National University of Ireland Galway (NUI Galway), Galway, Ireland.|Centre for Research in Medical Devices (CURAM), Biosciences Research Building, National University of Ireland Galway (NUI Galway), Galway, Ireland.
authors.forename: Abhay
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Pandit
authors.affiliation: Regenerative, Modular & Developmental Engineering Laboratory (REMODEL), Biosciences Research Building, National University of Ireland Galway (NUI Galway), Galway, Ireland.|Network of Excellence for Functional Biomaterials (NFB), Biosciences Research Building, National University of Ireland Galway (NUI Galway), Galway, Ireland.|Centre for Research in Medical Devices (CURAM), Biosciences Research Building, National University of Ireland Galway (NUI Galway), Galway, Ireland.
authors.forename: Dimitrios I
authors.initials: DI
authors.lastname: Zeugolis
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D005612:Freeze Drying; D006801:Humans; D055616:Microtechnology / Q000379:methods*; D054802:Molecular Imprinting; D009141:Musculoskeletal System / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D036103:Nanotechnology / Q000379:methods*; D023822:Tissue Engineering / Q000379:methods*
keywords: additive manufacturing; electrospinning; freeze‐drying; imprinting; scaffold fabrication technologies; self‐assembly; tissue engineering