title: Development of Dive Capacity in Northern Elephant Seals (Mirounga angustirostris): Reduced Body Reserves at Weaning Are Associated with Elevated Body Oxygen Stores during the Postweaning Fast.
abstract: Developmental increases in dive capacity have been reported in numerous species of air-breathing marine vertebrates. Previous studies in juvenile phocid seals suggest that increases in physiological dive capacity during the postweaning fast (PWF) are critical to support independent aquatic foraging. Although there is a strong relationship between size at weaning and PWF duration and body reserves at weaning vary considerably, few studies have considered whether such variation in body reserve magnitude promotes phenotypic modulation of dive capacity development during the PWF. Phenotypic modulation, a form of developmental plasticity in which rates and degrees of expression of the developmental program are modulated by environmental factors, may enhance diving capacity in weanlings with reduced PWF durations due to smaller body reserves at weaning if reduced body reserves promote accelerated development of dive capacity. We longitudinally measured changes in blood and muscle oxygen stores and muscle metabolic enzymes over the first 8 wk of the PWF in northern elephant seals and determined whether rates of change in these parameters varied with body reserves at weaning. We assessed whether erythropoietin (EPO), thyroid hormones, serum nonesterified fatty acid levels, and iron status influenced blood and muscle oxygen store development or were influenced by body reserves at weaning. Although mass-specific plasma volume and blood volume were relatively stable across the fast, both were elevated in animals with reduced body reserves. Surprisingly, hemoglobin and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentrations declined over the PWF while hematocrit remained stable, and these variables were not associated with body reserves or EPO. Swimming muscle myoglobin and serum iron levels increased rapidly early in the PWF and were not related to body reserves. Patterns in maximal activities of muscle enzymes suggested a decline in total aerobic and anaerobic metabolic capacity over the PWF, despite maintenance of fat oxidation capacity. These results suggest that only development of blood volume is increased in smaller weanlings and that extended fasting durations in larger weanlings do not improve physiological dive capacity.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, California 94928; 2Extreme Physiology Laboratory, Department of Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523.
authors.forename: Derek A
authors.initials: DA
authors.lastname: Somo
authors.forename: David C
authors.initials: DC
authors.lastname: Ensminger
authors.forename: Jeffrey T
authors.initials: JT
authors.lastname: Sharick
authors.forename: Shane B
authors.initials: SB
authors.lastname: Kanatous
authors.forename: Daniel E
authors.initials: DE
authors.lastname: Crocker
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001810:Blood Volume; D004242:Diving / Q000502:physiology*; D004921:Erythropoietin / Q000032:analysis; D005215:Fasting / Q000502:physiology; D005230:Fatty Acids, Nonesterified / Q000097:blood; D006454:Hemoglobins / Q000032:analysis; D007501:Iron / Q000097:blood; D018482:Muscle, Skeletal / Q000737:chemistry / Q000201:enzymology; D009211:Myoglobin / Q000032:analysis; D010100:Oxygen / Q000378:metabolism*; D010641:Phenotype; D046048:Seals, Earless / Q000254:growth & development / Q000502:physiology*; D013963:Thyroid Hormones / Q000097:blood; D014886:Weaning
chemical_list: D005230:Fatty Acids, Nonesterified; D006454:Hemoglobins; D009211:Myoglobin; D013963:Thyroid Hormones; D004921:Erythropoietin; D007501:Iron; D010100:Oxygen