title: Spiralian gastrulation: germ layer formation, morphogenesis, and fate of the blastopore in the slipper snail Crepidula fornicata.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Gastrulation is a critical step in bilaterian development, directly linked to the segregation of germ layers, establishment of axes, and emergence of the through-gut. Theories about the evolution of gastrulation often concern the fate of the blastopore (site of endomesoderm internalization), which varies widely in a major branch of bilaterians, the Spiralia. In this group, the blastopore has been said to become the mouth, the anus, both, or neither. Different developmental explanations for this variation exist, yet no modern lineage tracing study has ever correlated the position of cells surrounding the blastopore with their contribution to tissues of the mouth, foregut, and anus in a spiralian. This is the first study to do so, using the gastropod Crepidula fornicata.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Crepidula gastrulation occurs by epiboly: the first through third quartet micromeres form an epithelial animal cap that expands to cover vegetal endomesodermal precursors. Initially, descendants of the second and third quartet micromeres (2a-2d, 3a-3d) occupy a portion of the blastopore lip. As the blastopore narrows, the micromeres' progeny exhibit lineage-specific behaviors that result in certain sublineages leaving the lip's edge. Anteriorly, cells derived from 3a(2) and 3b(2) undergo a unique epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition involving proliferation and a collective movement of cells into the archenteron. These cells make a novel spiralian germ layer, the ectomesoderm. Posteriorly, cells derived from 3c(2) and 3d(2) undergo a form of convergence and extension that involves zippering of cells and their intercalation across the ventral midline. During this process, several of these cells, as well as the 2d clone, become displaced posteriorly, away from the blastopore. Progeny of 2a-2c and 3a-3d make the mouth and foregut, and the blastopore becomes the opening to the mouth. The anus forms days later, as a secondary opening within the 2d(2) clone, and not from the classically described "anal cells", which we identify as the 3c(221) and 3d(221) cells.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our analysis of Crepidula gastrulation constitutes the first description of blastopore lip morphogenesis and fates using lineage tracing and live imaging. These data have profound implications for hypotheses about the evolution of the bilaterian gut and help explain observed variation in blastopore morphogenesis among spiralians.
authors.affiliation: Biology Department, Duke University, 124 Science Drive, Durham, NC 27708 USA.
authors.forename: Deirdre C
authors.initials: DC
authors.lastname: Lyons
authors.affiliation: Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Illinois, 601 S. Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL 61801 USA.
authors.forename: Kimberly J
authors.initials: KJ
authors.lastname: Perry
authors.affiliation: Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Illinois, 601 S. Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL 61801 USA.
authors.forename: Jonathan Q
authors.initials: JQ
authors.lastname: Henry
keywords: Amphistomy; Blastopore; Ectomesoderm; Endomesoderm; Epiboly; Gastrulation; Lophotrochozoa; Spiralia