title: Following "the Roots" of Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa): The Evolution of an Enhancer from a Traditional Use to Increase Work and Productivity in Southeast Asia to a Recreational Psychoactive Drug in Western Countries.
abstract: The use of substances to enhance human abilities is a constant and cross-cultural feature in the evolution of humanity. Although much has changed over time, the availability on the Internet, often supported by misleading marketing strategies, has made their use even more likely and risky. This paper will explore the case of Mitragyna speciosa Korth. (kratom), a tropical tree used traditionally to combat fatigue and improve work productivity among farm populations in Southeast Asia, which has recently become popular as novel psychoactive substance in Western countries. Specifically, it (i) reviews the state of the art on kratom pharmacology and identification; (ii) provides a comprehensive overview of kratom use cross-culturally; (iii) explores the subjective experiences of users; (iv) identifies potential risks and side-effects related to its consumption. Finally, it concludes that the use of kratom is not negligible, especially for self-medication, and more clinical, pharmacological, and socioanthropological studies as well as a better international collaboration are needed to tackle this marginally explored phenomenon.
authors.affiliation: Centre for Clinical & Health Research Services, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane Campus, Hatfield, Herts AL10 9AB, UK ; Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, Gabriele D'Annunzio University, Chieti, Italy.
authors.forename: Eduardo
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Cinosi
authors.affiliation: Centre for Clinical & Health Research Services, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane Campus, Hatfield, Herts AL10 9AB, UK ; Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, Gabriele D'Annunzio University, Chieti, Italy.
authors.forename: Giovanni
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Martinotti
authors.affiliation: Centre for Clinical & Health Research Services, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane Campus, Hatfield, Herts AL10 9AB, UK.
authors.forename: Pierluigi
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Simonato
authors.affiliation: Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains, Penang, Malaysia.
authors.forename: Darshan
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Singh
authors.affiliation: Institute of Psychology, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary.
authors.forename: Zsolt
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Demetrovics
authors.affiliation: London School of Economics and Political Science, LSE Health and Social Care, London, UK ; Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
authors.forename: Andres
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Roman-Urrestarazu
authors.affiliation: Centre for Clinical & Health Research Services, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane Campus, Hatfield, Herts AL10 9AB, UK ; Department of Neurology and Psychiatry, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
authors.forename: Francesco Saverio
authors.initials: FS
authors.lastname: Bersani
authors.affiliation: Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains, Penang, Malaysia.
authors.forename: Balasingam
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Vicknasingam
authors.affiliation: Centre for Clinical & Health Research Services, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane Campus, Hatfield, Herts AL10 9AB, UK.
authors.forename: Giulia
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Piazzon
authors.affiliation: School of Pharmacy and Ph.D. Program in Toxicology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
authors.forename: Jih-Heng
authors.initials: JH
authors.lastname: Li
authors.affiliation: School of Pharmacy and Ph.D. Program in Toxicology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
authors.forename: Wen-Jing
authors.initials: WJ
authors.lastname: Yu
authors.affiliation: Institute of Psychology, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary ; Faculty of Health Sciences, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary ; Nyírő Gyula Hospital, National Institute of Psychiatry and Addictions, Budapest, Hungary.
authors.forename: Máté
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Kapitány-Fövény
authors.affiliation: Institute of Psychology, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary ; Nyírő Gyula Hospital, National Institute of Psychiatry and Addictions, Budapest, Hungary.
authors.forename: Judit
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Farkas
authors.affiliation: Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, Gabriele D'Annunzio University, Chieti, Italy.
authors.forename: Massimo
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Di Giannantonio
authors.affiliation: Centre for Clinical & Health Research Services, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, College Lane Campus, Hatfield, Herts AL10 9AB, UK ; Department of Neurology and Psychiatry, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
authors.forename: Ornella
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Corazza
mesh_terms: D001210:Asia, Southeastern; D000697:Central Nervous System Stimulants; D003431:Cross-Cultural Comparison; D055030:Drug Users; D006801:Humans; D013287:Illicit Drugs; D032065:Mitragyna; D010936:Plant Extracts; D011619:Psychotropic Drugs; D014481:United States
chemical_list: D000697:Central Nervous System Stimulants; D013287:Illicit Drugs; D010936:Plant Extracts; D011619:Psychotropic Drugs