title: Sexually transmitted infections in children as a marker of child sexual abuse and direction of future research.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  This review considers recent evidence on sexually transmitted infections (STIs) as a marker of child sexual abuse (CSA), when diagnosed after the neonatal period. It also aims to identify if there are specific areas where additional research is required.
  
  
  RESULTS
  An evidence-based systematic review using strict inclusion criteria shows that CSA is a major cause of STIs in children. In children 12 years and below, 36-83% of Neisseria gonorrhoeae and 75-94% of Chlamydia trachomatis infections are due to CSA; for children 14 years and younger, 31-58% of anogenital warts are due to CSA. In child genital sampling, genital human papillomavirus (HPV) types were more common in those considered abused (13.7%) than nonabused (1.3%). HPV typing of genital warts in children were all of genital type 6. Subsequent research, into N. gonorrhoeae, C. trachomatis, Trichomonas vaginalis and syphilis in children including ophthalmic infection, found that 13 of 15 cases were confirmed/likely due to CSA. Recent data indicate that bacterial vaginosis and Mycoplasma genitalium are related to sexual activity in adults but did not assess children.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  STIs in children under 13-14 years may indicate CSA. Genital HPV types are associated with CSA. Research is required of sufficient standard to contribute to the evidence base.
authors.affiliation: aDepartment of Genitourinary Medicine, Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, University of Sheffield School of Medicine Sheffield bDepartment of Genitourinary Medicine, Jefferiss Wing Centre for Sexual Health, St Mary's Hospital, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust cDepartment of Genitourinary/HIV Medicine, CNWL NHS Foundation, Trust and UCL, London, UK.
authors.forename: Karen E
authors.initials: KE
authors.lastname: Rogstad
authors.forename: Dawn
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Wilkinson
authors.forename: Angela
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Robinson
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D002648:Child; D002650:Child Abuse, Sexual / Q000175:diagnosis*; D002675:Child, Preschool; D002690:Chlamydia Infections / Q000209:etiology; D003218:Condylomata Acuminata / Q000209:etiology; D005260:Female; D006069:Gonorrhea / Q000209:etiology; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D030361:Papillomavirus Infections / Q000209:etiology; D015995:Prevalence; D012307:Risk Factors; D012749:Sexually Transmitted Diseases / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000209:etiology* / Q000473:pathology / Q000635:transmission; D013587:Syphilis / Q000209:etiology; D016585:Vaginosis, Bacterial / Q000209:etiology