title: Interactive effects of copper exposure and environmental hypercapnia on immune functions of marine bivalves Crassostrea virginica and Mercenaria mercenaria.
abstract: Estuarine organisms such as bivalves are commonly exposed to trace metals such as copper (Cu) and hypercapnia (elevated CO2 levels) in their habitats, which may affect their physiology and immune function. This study investigated the combined effects of elevated CO2 levels (∼800-2000 μatm PCO2, such as predicted by the near-future scenarios of global climate change) and Cu (50 μg l(-1)) on immune functions of the sediment dwelling hard clams Mercenaria mercenaria and an epifaunal bivalve, the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica. Clams and oysters were exposed for 4 weeks to different CO2 and Cu levels, and tissue Cu burdens and immune parameters were assessed to test the hypothesis that hypercapnia will enhance Cu uptake due to the higher bioavailability of free Cu(2+) and increase the immunomodulatory effects of Cu. Exposure to Cu stimulated key immune parameters of clams and oysters leading to increased number of circulating hemocytes, higher phagocytosis and adhesion ability of hemocytes, as well as enhanced antiparasitic and antibacterial properties of the hemolymph reflected in higher activities of lysozyme and inhibitors of cysteine proteases. Lysozyme activation by Cu exposure was most prominent in normocapnia (∼400 μatm PCO2) and an increase in the levels of the protease inhibitors was strongest in hypercapnia (∼800-2000 μatm PCO2), but other immunostimulatory effects of Cu were evident in all PCO2 exposures. Metabolic activity of hemocytes of clams and oysters (measured as routine and mitochondrial oxygen consumption rates) was suppressed by Cu exposure likely reflecting lower rates of ATP synthesis and/or turnover. However, this metabolic suppression had no negative effects of the studied immune functions of hemocytes such as phagocytosis or adhesion capacity. Hypercapnia (∼800-2000 μatm PCO2) slightly but significantly enhanced accumulation of Cu in hemocytes, consistent with higher Cu(2+) bioavailability in CO2-acidified water, but had little effect on cellular and humoral immune traits of clams and oysters. These findings indicate that low levels of Cu contamination may enhance immunity of estuarine bivalves while moderate hypercapnia (such as predicted by the near future scenarios of the global climate change) does not strongly affect their immune parameters.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA. Electronic address: aivanina@uncc.edu.
authors.forename: Anna V
authors.initials: AV
authors.lastname: Ivanina
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA.
authors.forename: Chelsea
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Hawkins
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA.
authors.forename: Inna M
authors.initials: IM
authors.lastname: Sokolova
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D002245:Carbon Dioxide / Q000633:toxicity; D003300:Copper / Q000633:toxicity*; D049896:Crassostrea / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000276:immunology*; D004305:Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; D006434:Hemocytes / Q000187:drug effects; D006458:Hemolymph / Q000187:drug effects; D007113:Immunity, Innate / Q000187:drug effects*; D056747:Immunomodulation / Q000187:drug effects; D049891:Mercenaria / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000276:immunology*; D013045:Species Specificity; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000633:toxicity
chemical_list: D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical; D002245:Carbon Dioxide; D003300:Copper
keywords: Copper; Hard clams; Hemocytes; Immunity; Ocean acidification; Oysters; Respiration