title: Influence of grand-mother diet on offspring performances through the male line in Muscovy duck.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  In mammals, multigenerational environmental effects have been documented by either epidemiological studies in human or animal experiments in rodents. Whether such phenomena also occur in birds for more than one generation is still an open question. The objective of this study was to investigate if a methionine deficiency experienced by a mother (G0) could affect her grand-offspring phenotypes (G2 hybrid mule ducks and G2 purebred Muscovy ducks), through their Muscovy sons (G1). Muscovy drakes are used for the production of mule ducks, which are sterile offspring of female common duck (Anas platyrhynchos) and Muscovy drakes (Cairina moschata). In France, mule ducks are bred mainly for the production of "foie gras", which stems from hepatic steatosis under two weeks of force-feeding (FF). Two groups of female Muscovy ducks received either a methionine deficient diet or a control diet. Their sons were mated to Muscovy or to common duck females to produce Muscovy or Mule ducks, respectively. Several traits were measured in the G2 progenies, concerning growth, feed efficiency during FF, body composition after FF, and quality of foie gras and magret.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In the G2 mule duck progeny, grand-maternal methionine deficiency (GMMD) decreased 4, 8, and 12 week body weights but increased weight gain and feed efficiency during FF, and abdominal fat weight. The plasmatic glucose and triglyceride contents at the end of FF were higher in the methionine deficient group. In the G2 purebred Muscovy progeny, GMMD tended to decrease 4 week body weight in both sexes, and decreased weight gain between the ages of 4 and 12 weeks, 12 week body weight, and body weight at the end of FF in male offspring only. GMMD tended to increase liver weight and increased the carcass proportion of liver in both sexes.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Altogether, these results show that the mother's diet is able to affect traits linked to growth and to lipid metabolism in the offspring of her sons, in Muscovy ducks. Whether this transmission through the father of information induced in the grand-mother by the environment is epigenetic remains to be demonstrated.
authors.affiliation: UMR INRA, Génétique, Physiologie et Systèmes d'Elevage, INRA, 31328, Castanet Tolosan, France. jan-mil@orange.fr.|INPT ENSAT, Génétique, Physiologie et Systèmes d'Elevage, INRA, 31328, Castanet Tolosan, France. jan-mil@orange.fr.|INPT ENVT, Génétique, Physiologie et Systèmes d'Elevage, INRA, 31328, Castanet Tolosan, France. jan-mil@orange.fr.
authors.forename: Jean-Michel
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Brun
authors.affiliation: Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Unité Expérimentale des Palmipèdes à Foie Gras, UE89, 40280, Benquet, France. marie-dominique.bernadet@bordeaux.inra.fr.
authors.forename: Marie-Dominique
authors.initials: MD
authors.lastname: Bernadet
authors.affiliation: Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Unité Expérimentale des Palmipèdes à Foie Gras, UE89, 40280, Benquet, France. alexis.cornuez@bordeaux.inra.fr.
authors.forename: Alexis
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Cornuez
authors.affiliation: UMR INRA, Génétique, Physiologie et Systèmes d'Elevage, INRA, 31328, Castanet Tolosan, France. sophie.leroux@toulouse.inra.fr.|INPT ENSAT, Génétique, Physiologie et Systèmes d'Elevage, INRA, 31328, Castanet Tolosan, France. sophie.leroux@toulouse.inra.fr.|INPT ENVT, Génétique, Physiologie et Systèmes d'Elevage, INRA, 31328, Castanet Tolosan, France. sophie.leroux@toulouse.inra.fr.
authors.forename: Sophie
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Leroux
authors.affiliation: UMR INRA, Génétique, Physiologie et Systèmes d'Elevage, INRA, 31328, Castanet Tolosan, France. loys.bodin@toulouse.inra.fr.|INPT ENSAT, Génétique, Physiologie et Systèmes d'Elevage, INRA, 31328, Castanet Tolosan, France. loys.bodin@toulouse.inra.fr.|INPT ENVT, Génétique, Physiologie et Systèmes d'Elevage, INRA, 31328, Castanet Tolosan, France. loys.bodin@toulouse.inra.fr.
authors.forename: Loys
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Bodin
authors.affiliation: UMR INRA, Génétique, Physiologie et Systèmes d'Elevage, INRA, 31328, Castanet Tolosan, France. benjamin.basso@itsap.asso.fr.|INPT ENSAT, Génétique, Physiologie et Systèmes d'Elevage, INRA, 31328, Castanet Tolosan, France. benjamin.basso@itsap.asso.fr.|INPT ENVT, Génétique, Physiologie et Systèmes d'Elevage, INRA, 31328, Castanet Tolosan, France. benjamin.basso@itsap.asso.fr.|Present addresses: ITSAP-Institut de l'Abeille, Site Agroparc, 84914, Avignon, France. benjamin.basso@itsap.asso.fr.|UMT Protection des Abeilles dans l'Environnement, CS 40506, 84914, Avignon, France. benjamin.basso@itsap.asso.fr.
authors.forename: Benjamin
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Basso
authors.affiliation: UMR5254 IUT des Pays de l'Adour-CNRS, 40004, Mont de Marsan Cedex, France. stephane.davail@univ-pau.fr.
authors.forename: Stéphane
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Davail
authors.affiliation: UMR5254 IUT des Pays de l'Adour-CNRS, 40004, Mont de Marsan Cedex, France. mathilde.jaglin@univ-pau.fr.
authors.forename: Mathilde
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Jaglin
authors.affiliation: Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, UR83 Unité de Recherche Avicole, 37380, Nouzilly, France. michel.lessire@tours.inra.fr.
authors.forename: Michel
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Lessire
authors.affiliation: Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Unité Expérimentale des Palmipèdes à Foie Gras, UE89, 40280, Benquet, France. xavier.martin@bordeaux.inra.fr.
authors.forename: Xavier
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Martin
authors.affiliation: Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Pôle d'Expérimentation Avicole de Tours, UE1295, 37380, Nouzilly, France. nadine.sellier@paca.inra.fr.
authors.forename: Nadine
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Sellier
authors.affiliation: UMR INRA, Génétique, Physiologie et Systèmes d'Elevage, INRA, 31328, Castanet Tolosan, France. mireille.morisson@toulouse.inra.fr.|INPT ENSAT, Génétique, Physiologie et Systèmes d'Elevage, INRA, 31328, Castanet Tolosan, France. mireille.morisson@toulouse.inra.fr.|INPT ENVT, Génétique, Physiologie et Systèmes d'Elevage, INRA, 31328, Castanet Tolosan, France. mireille.morisson@toulouse.inra.fr.
authors.forename: Mireille
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Morisson
authors.affiliation: UMR INRA, Génétique, Physiologie et Systèmes d'Elevage, INRA, 31328, Castanet Tolosan, France. frederique.pitel@toulouse.inra.fr.|INPT ENSAT, Génétique, Physiologie et Systèmes d'Elevage, INRA, 31328, Castanet Tolosan, France. frederique.pitel@toulouse.inra.fr.|INPT ENVT, Génétique, Physiologie et Systèmes d'Elevage, INRA, 31328, Castanet Tolosan, France. frederique.pitel@toulouse.inra.fr.
authors.forename: Frédérique
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Pitel
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001835:Body Weight; D003433:Crosses, Genetic; D019175:DNA Methylation; D004032:Diet / Q000662:veterinary; D004372:Ducks / Q000145:classification / Q000235:genetics* / Q000254:growth & development / Q000378:metabolism*; D044127:Epigenesis, Genetic; D005260:Female; D008297:Male; D008715:Methionine / Q000172:deficiency; D014280:Triglycerides / Q000097:blood
chemical_list: D014280:Triglycerides; D008715:Methionine