title: Life-history trade-offs in a generalist digenean from cetaceans: the role of host specificity and environmental factors.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Adults and larvae of generalist parasites are exposed to diverse hosts and local environmental conditions throughout their life cycles, thus local adaptation is expected to occur through phenotypic plasticity and/or natural selection. We investigated how the combined effect of cryptic host specificity and local selective pressures could shape reproductive traits of a putative generalist parasite in the oceanic realm.
  
  
  METHODS
  The LSU rDNA, ITS2 and the mt-COI of individuals of the digenean Pholeter gastrophilus (Kossack, 1910) Odhner, 1914 (Heterophyidae Leiper, 1909) from oceanic striped dolphins, Stenella coeruleoalba Meyen, and coastal bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus Montagu, in the western Mediterranean were used to elucidate whether worms were conspecific. Infection parameters were compared between both dolphin species. General Linear Mixed Models were used to analyse the influence of host species on four reproductive traits of P. gastrophilus: body size, maturity stage (non-gravid/gravid), egg size, and number of eggs in utero. AIC values were used to rank competing models, and p-values to assess the effect of specific predictors.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Evidence indicated that worms collected from both dolphin species were conspecific. All worms collected were gravid and infection parameters did not differ between dolphin species. However, body size and egg size of individuals of P. gastrophilus were significantly larger in striped dolphins. The number of eggs in utero did not significantly differ between dolphin species but, for a given body size, worms in bottlenose dolphins harboured more eggs. A trade-off between egg size and egg number was found in worms from both dolphin species, with a higher slope in striped dolphins.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Apparently, striped dolphin is a more suitable host for P. gastrophilus, but reproductive investment seems to be adapted to the habitat where the life-cycle develops. Worms from striped dolphins likely face the problem of finding intermediate hosts in the oceanic realm and apparently invest into offspring size to enhance the early survival of larvae and the potential to multiply asexually within the first intermediate host. The small-sized worms from bottlenose dolphins would be adapted to reproduce early because of higher adult mortality, generating smaller and numerous eggs in a coastal habitat where chances of transmission are presumably higher.
authors.affiliation: Marine Zoology Unit, Cavanilles Institute of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Science Park, University of Valencia, PO Box 22085, 46071, Valencia, Spain. natalia.fraija@uv.es.
authors.forename: Natalia
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Fraija-Fernández
authors.affiliation: Marine Zoology Unit, Cavanilles Institute of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Science Park, University of Valencia, PO Box 22085, 46071, Valencia, Spain. mercedes.fernandez@uv.es.
authors.forename: Mercedes
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Fernández
authors.affiliation: Marine Zoology Unit, Cavanilles Institute of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Science Park, University of Valencia, PO Box 22085, 46071, Valencia, Spain. toni.raga@uv.es.
authors.forename: Juan A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Raga
authors.affiliation: Marine Zoology Unit, Cavanilles Institute of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Science Park, University of Valencia, PO Box 22085, 46071, Valencia, Spain. francisco.aznar@uv.es.
authors.forename: Francisco J
authors.initials: FJ
authors.lastname: Aznar
mesh_terms: D000222:Adaptation, Physiological; D000818:Animals; D050681:Bottle-Nosed Dolphin / Q000469:parasitology*; D018509:DNA, Helminth / Q000737:chemistry / Q000235:genetics; D004275:DNA, Ribosomal / Q000737:chemistry / Q000235:genetics; D021903:DNA, Ribosomal Spacer / Q000737:chemistry / Q000235:genetics; D003576:Electron Transport Complex IV / Q000235:genetics; D004781:Environmental Exposure; D058507:Host Specificity; D008522:Mediterranean Sea; D008969:Molecular Sequence Data; D012335:RNA, Ribosomal / Q000235:genetics; D017422:Sequence Analysis, DNA; D050706:Stenella / Q000469:parasitology*; D014322:Troglotrematidae / Q000033:anatomy & histology* / Q000145:classification / Q000302:isolation & purification / Q000502:physiology*; D015053:Zygote / Q000166:cytology*
chemical_list: D018509:DNA, Helminth; D004275:DNA, Ribosomal; D021903:DNA, Ribosomal Spacer; D012335:RNA, Ribosomal; C065096:RNA, ribosomal, 26S; D003576:Electron Transport Complex IV