title: Sea-dumped chemical weapons: environmental risk, occupational hazard.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Chemical weapons dumped into the ocean for disposal in the twentieth century pose a continuing environmental and human health risk.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  In this review we discuss locations, quantity, and types of sea-dumped chemical weapons, related environmental concerns, and human encounters with sea-dumped chemical weapons.
  
  
  METHODS
  We utilized the Ovid (http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com) and PubMed (http://www.pubmed.org) search engines to perform MEDLINE searches for the terms 'sea-dumped chemical weapons', 'chemical warfare agents', and 'chemical munitions'. The searches returned 5863 articles. Irrelevant and non-English articles were excluded. A review of the references for these articles yielded additional relevant sources, with a total of 64 peer-reviewed articles cited in this paper. History and geography of chemical weapons dumping at sea: Hundreds of thousands of tons of chemical munitions were disposed off at sea following World War II. European, Russian, Japanese, and United States coasts are the areas most affected worldwide. Several areas in the Baltic and North Seas suffered concentrated large levels of dumping, and these appear to be the world's most studied chemical warfare agent marine dumping areas. Chemical warfare agents: Sulfur mustard, Lewisite, and the nerve agents appear to be the chemical warfare agents most frequently disposed off at sea. Multiple other type of agents including organoarsenicals, blood agents, choking agents, and lacrimators were dumped at sea, although in lesser volumes. Environmental concerns: Numerous geohydrologic variables contribute to the rate of release of chemical agents from their original casings, leading to difficult and inexact modeling of risk of release into seawater. Sulfur mustard and the organoarsenicals are the most environmentally persistent dumped chemical agents. Sulfur mustard in particular has a propensity to form a solid or semi-solid lump with a polymer coating of breakdown products, and can persist in this state on the ocean floor for decades. Rates of solubility and hydrolysis and levels of innate toxicity of a chemical agent are used to predict the risk to the marine environments. The organoarsenicals eventually breakdown into arsenic, and thus present an indefinite timeline for contamination. Generally, studies assaying sediment and water levels of parent chemical agents and breakdown products at dumpsites have found minimal amounts of relevant chemicals, although arsenic levels are typically higher in dumpsites than reference areas. Studies of marine organisms have not shown concerning amounts of chemical agents or breakdown products in tissue, but have shown evidence of chronic toxicity. There is believed to be minimal risk posed by seafood consumption. Microbiota assays of dumpsites are significantly altered in species composition compared to reference sites, which may imply unseen but significant changes to ecosystems of dumpsites. Human health concerns: The major human health risk at this time appears to arise from acute exposure to an agent by either accidental recovery of a chemical weapon on a fishing vessel, or by munitions washed ashore onto beaches.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Improving technology continues to make the deep sea more accessible, thus increasing the risk of disturbing munitions lying on or buried in the seabed. Pipe laying, cable burying, drilling, scuba diving, trawling, and undersea scientific research are the activities posing the most risk. The long-term threat to the benthic habitat via increased arsenic concentrations, shifts in microbiota speciation, and chronic toxicity to vertebrates and invertebrates is not currently understood. The risk to the environment of massive release via disturbance remains a distinct possibility. Terrorist recovery and re-weaponization of chemical agents is a remote possibility.
authors.affiliation: a Department of Emergency Medicine , Drexel University College of Medicine , Philadelphia , PA , USA.
authors.forename: M I
authors.initials: MI
authors.lastname: Greenberg
authors.affiliation: a Department of Emergency Medicine , Drexel University College of Medicine , Philadelphia , PA , USA.
authors.forename: K J
authors.initials: KJ
authors.lastname: Sexton
authors.affiliation: a Department of Emergency Medicine , Drexel University College of Medicine , Philadelphia , PA , USA.
authors.forename: D
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Vearrier
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D059001:Aquatic Organisms / Q000187:drug effects / Q000254:growth & development; D001152:Arsenicals / Q000032:analysis; D002619:Chemical Warfare Agents / Q000032:analysis* / Q000633:toxicity; D003486:Cyanides / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity; D016208:Databases, Factual; D004784:Environmental Monitoring; D005060:Europe; D005399:Fishes / Q000254:growth & development; D019015:Geologic Sediments / Q000032:analysis; D006801:Humans; D007564:Japan; D009151:Mustard Gas / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity; D000067397:Nerve Agents / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity; D009792:Oceans and Seas; D010705:Phosgene / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity; D018570:Risk Assessment; D014481:United States; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity; D002721:omega-Chloroacetophenone / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity
chemical_list: D001152:Arsenicals; D002619:Chemical Warfare Agents; D003486:Cyanides; D000067397:Nerve Agents; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical; D010705:Phosgene; D002721:omega-Chloroacetophenone; D009151:Mustard Gas
keywords: CNS/psychological; organ/tissue specific; other