title: Use of alcohol and drugs by employees in selected business areas in Norway: a study using oral fluid testing and questionnaires.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Alcohol or drug use and associated hangover may reduce workplace safety and productivity and also cause sickness absence. The aims of this study were to examine (i) the use of alcohol and drugs, and (ii) reduced efficiency at work and absence due to such use among employees.
  
  
  METHODS
  Forty-four companies were invited; half of them agreed to participate. Employees filled in a questionnaire and provided a sample of oral fluid, which was analysed for alcohol, 12 psychoactive medicinal drugs and 6 illicit drugs. Participation was voluntary and anonymous.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Two thousand four hundred thirty-seven employees in eight business areas agreed to participate (92 % of those invited). By combining questionnaires and oral fluid testing, we found that 5.2 % had used psychoactive medication during the last couple of days, 1.4 % had used illicit drugs, 17.0 % had used alcohol during the last 24 h but only one person (0.04 %) was positive for alcohol in oral fluid. About 25 % reported reduced efficiency at work, and 5 % reported absence from work due to alcohol use during the past 12 months. The use of illicit drugs and binge drinking resulting in reduced efficiency and absence was most common among restaurant and bar workers and more common among men than women, whereas use of psychoactive medication was most common among healthcare, transportation and storage workers.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Impairment at work due to alcohol or drugs was rare, whereas reduced efficiency due to drinking was reported by a fairly large proportion. There were marked differences between some business areas, and across gender.
authors.affiliation: Norwegian Institute of Public Health, P. O. Box 4404, Nydalen, NO-0403 Oslo Norway.
authors.forename: Hilde Marie Erøy
authors.initials: HM
authors.lastname: Edvardsen
authors.affiliation: Norwegian Institute for Alcohol and Drug Research (SIRUS), P. O. Box 565, Sentrum, NO-0105 Oslo Norway.
authors.forename: Inger Synnøve
authors.initials: IS
authors.lastname: Moan
authors.affiliation: Norwegian Institute of Public Health, P. O. Box 4404, Nydalen, NO-0403 Oslo Norway.
authors.forename: Asbjørg S
authors.initials: AS
authors.lastname: Christophersen
authors.affiliation: Norwegian Institute of Public Health, P. O. Box 4404, Nydalen, NO-0403 Oslo Norway.
authors.forename: Hallvard
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Gjerde
keywords: Alcohol drinking; Illicit drugs; Prescription drugs; Prevalence; Workplace