title: Delayed peripheral nerve repair: methods, including surgical 'cross-bridging' to promote nerve regeneration.
abstract: Despite the capacity of Schwann cells to support peripheral nerve regeneration, functional recovery after nerve injuries is frequently poor, especially for proximal injuries that require regenerating axons to grow over long distances to reinnervate distal targets. Nerve transfers, where small fascicles from an adjacent intact nerve are coapted to the nerve stump of a nearby denervated muscle, allow for functional return but at the expense of reduced numbers of innervating nerves. A 1-hour period of 20 Hz electrical nerve stimulation via electrodes proximal to an injury site accelerates axon outgrowth to hasten target reinnervation in rats and humans, even after delayed surgery. A novel strategy of enticing donor axons from an otherwise intact nerve to grow through small nerve grafts (cross-bridges) into a denervated nerve stump, promotes improved axon regeneration after delayed nerve repair. The efficacy of this technique has been demonstrated in a rat model and is now in clinical use in patients undergoing cross-face nerve grafting for facial paralysis. In conclusion, brief electrical stimulation, combined with the surgical technique of promoting the regeneration of some donor axons to 'protect' chronically denervated Schwann cells, improves nerve regeneration and, in turn, functional outcomes in the management of peripheral nerve injuries.
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic Reconstructive Surgery, the Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada.
authors.forename: Tessa
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Gordon
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic Reconstructive Surgery, the Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada.
authors.forename: Placheta
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Eva
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic Reconstructive Surgery, the Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada.
authors.forename: Gregory H
authors.initials: GH
authors.lastname: Borschel
keywords: Schwann cells; axon regeneration; electrical nerve stimulation; nerve regeneration; nerve repair; peripheral nerve injury