title: Indications for open procedures in the endoscopic era.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Endoscopic sinus surgery became the gold standard in inflammatory disorders of the nose and paranasal sinuses, in cerebrospinal fluid leak and epistaxis management, and established its efficacy in the oncology of the region. However, there are certain limitations which make an external approach mandatory. This article reviews the recent literature describing the cases where an open procedure is still indicated.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Despite the evolution of endoscopic surgery external approaches are still indicated. Osteoplastic flap remains an option for the refractory inflammation of the frontal sinus. Benign and malignant tumours with lateral or superior extension, neurovascular involvement, and bony/soft tissue erosion usually require an external approach. Superior and lateral posterior wall defects of frontal sinus with cerebrospinal fluid leak may mandate an open procedure. Management of severe epistaxis may still necessitate in selected cases an external approach when endoscopic surgery fails and embolization setting is not available.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Although advances in endoscopic instrumentation and techniques steadily decrease the indications for external approaches, they continue to have a role in the management of nasal disorders. This study summarizes the recent literature and provides a comprehensive review of the up-to-date remaining indications for open procedures in the nose and paranasal sinuses.
authors.affiliation: 2nd Academic ORL Department, Aristotle University, Papageorgiou Hospital, Thessaloniki, Greece.
authors.forename: Iordanis
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Konstantinidis
authors.forename: Jannis
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Constantinidis
mesh_terms: D065634:Cerebrospinal Fluid Leak / Q000601:surgery; D004724:Endoscopy / Q000379:methods; D004844:Epistaxis / Q000601:surgery; D006801:Humans; D009668:Nose Diseases / Q000601:surgery*; D013517:Otorhinolaryngologic Surgical Procedures / Q000379:methods*; D013524:Surgical Flaps