title: Occupant Injury Severity and Accident Causes in Helicopter Emergency Medical Services (1983-2014).
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Helicopter emergency medical services (HEMS) transport critically ill patients to/between emergency care facilities and operate in a hazardous environment: the destination site is often encumbered with obstacles, difficult to visualize at night, and lack instrument approaches for degraded visibility. The study objectives were to determine 1) HEMS accident rates and causes; 2) occupant injury severity profiles; and 3) whether accident aircraft were certified to the more stringent crashworthiness standards implemented two decades ago.
  
  
  METHODS
  The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) aviation accident database was used to identify HEMS mishaps for the years spanning 1983-2014. Contingency tables (Pearson Chi-square or Fisher's exact test) were used to determine differences in proportions. A generalized linear model (Poisson distribution) was used to determine if accident rates differed over time.
  
  
  RESULTS
  While the HEMS accident rate decreased by 71% across the study period, the fraction of fatal accidents (36-50%) and the injury severity profiles were unchanged. None of the accident aircraft fully satisfied the current crashworthiness standards. Failure to clear obstacles and visual-to-instrument flight, the most frequent accident causes (37 and 26%, respectively), showed a downward trend, whereas accidents ascribed to aircraft malfunction showed an upward trend over time.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  HEMS operators should consider updating their fleet to the current, more stringent crashworthiness standards in an attempt to reduce injury severity. Additionally, toward further mitigating accidents ascribed to inadvertent visual-to-instrument conditions, HEMS aircraft should be avionics-equipped for instrument flight rules flight.
authors.affiliation: University of Texas, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Houston, TX, USA.
authors.forename: Douglas D
authors.initials: DD
authors.lastname: Boyd
authors.forename: Nickolas D
authors.initials: ND
authors.lastname: Macchiarella
mesh_terms: D000060:Accidents, Aviation / Q000401:mortality / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D017732:Air Ambulances; D000401:Aircraft; D006801:Humans; D015601:Injury Severity Score; D012307:Risk Factors; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology