title: Lethal drugs in capital punishment in USA: History, present, and future perspectives.
abstract: Lethal injection is the preferred method for the execution of condemned prisoners in the United States. A recent decision of The European Union to prohibit the export of drugs used in capital punishment to the USA along with domestic firms ceasing to manufacture these drugs has resulted in a drug shortage and a search for alternative drugs and new drug combinations that have not been previously validated for inducing death. As a consequence, some of the executions did not proceed as expected and sparked public debate regarding whether recent executions by lethal injection serve the purpose of avoiding "cruel and unusual punishment" in executions. Moreover, a cottage industry comprised of compounding pharmacies as emerged as a source of drug combinations used in capital punishment. Although there is a growing trend toward the abolishment of capital punishment in United States, the controversy concerning the efficacy of drug and involvement of health care professionals in the execution procedure is far from over.
authors.affiliation: University of Maryland Eastern Shore, School of Pharmacy and Health Professions, Princess Anne, MD 21853, USA.
authors.forename: Kristen
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Kas
authors.affiliation: University of Maryland Eastern Shore, School of Pharmacy and Health Professions, Princess Anne, MD 21853, USA.
authors.forename: Richard
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Yim
authors.affiliation: University of Maryland Eastern Shore, School of Pharmacy and Health Professions, Princess Anne, MD 21853, USA.
authors.forename: Salematou
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Traore
authors.affiliation: University of Maryland Eastern Shore, School of Pharmacy and Health Professions, Princess Anne, MD 21853, USA.
authors.forename: Marwa
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: ElFadaly
authors.affiliation: University of Maryland Eastern Shore, School of Pharmacy and Health Professions, Princess Anne, MD 21853, USA.
authors.forename: Lynn
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Lang
authors.affiliation: University of Maryland Eastern Shore, School of Pharmacy and Health Professions, Princess Anne, MD 21853, USA.
authors.forename: Robert A
authors.initials: RA
authors.lastname: Freeman
authors.affiliation: University of Maryland Eastern Shore, School of Pharmacy and Health Professions, Princess Anne, MD 21853, USA. Electronic address: jparmar@umes.edu.
authors.forename: Jayesh R
authors.initials: JR
authors.lastname: Parmar
authors.affiliation: University of Maryland Eastern Shore, School of Pharmacy and Health Professions, Princess Anne, MD 21853, USA. Electronic address: mkkharel@umes.edu.
authors.forename: Madan K
authors.initials: MK
authors.lastname: Kharel
mesh_terms: D002203:Capital Punishment / Q000379:methods* / Q000639:trends; D003132:Commerce; D004338:Drug Combinations; D004339:Drug Compounding; D004345:Drug Industry; D005062:European Union; D006801:Humans; D007275:Injections, Intravenous; D004364:Pharmaceutical Preparations / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000600:supply & distribution; D010593:Pharmaceutical Services / Q000458:organization & administration*; D014481:United States
chemical_list: D004338:Drug Combinations; D004364:Pharmaceutical Preparations
keywords: Barbiturates; Capital punishment; Compounding pharmacies; Ethics; Lethal injection; Midazolam mishaps; Pancuronium bromide; Potassium chloride