title: Investigating Voluntary Medical Male Circumcision Program Efficiency Gains through Subpopulation Prioritization: Insights from Application to Zambia.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Countries in sub-Saharan Africa are scaling-up voluntary male medical circumcision (VMMC) as an HIV intervention. Emerging challenges in these programs call for increased focus on program efficiency (optimizing program impact while minimizing cost). A novel analytic approach was developed to determine how subpopulation prioritization can increase program efficiency using an illustrative application for Zambia.
  
  
  RESULTS
  A population-level mathematical model was constructed describing the heterosexual HIV epidemic and impact of VMMC programs (age-structured mathematical (ASM) model). The model stratified the population according to sex, circumcision status, age group, sexual-risk behavior, HIV status, and stage of infection. A three-level conceptual framework was also developed to determine maximum epidemic impact and program efficiency through subpopulation prioritization, based on age, geography, and risk profile. In the baseline scenario, achieving 80% VMMC coverage by 2017 among males 15-49 year old, 12 VMMCs were needed per HIV infection averted (effectiveness). The cost per infection averted (cost-effectiveness) was USD $1,089 and 306,000 infections were averted. Through age-group prioritization, effectiveness ranged from 11 (20-24 age-group) to 36 (45-49 age-group); cost-effectiveness ranged from $888 (20-24 age-group) to $3,300 (45-49 age-group). Circumcising 10-14, 15-19, or 20-24 year old achieved the largest incidence rate reduction; prioritizing 15-24, 15-29, or 15-34 year old achieved the greatest program efficiency. Through geographic prioritization, effectiveness ranged from 9-12. Prioritizing Lusaka achieved the highest effectiveness. Through risk-group prioritization, prioritizing the highest risk group achieved the highest effectiveness, with only one VMMC needed per infection averted; the lowest risk group required 80 times more VMMCs.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Epidemic impact and efficiency of VMMC programs can be improved by prioritizing young males (sexually active or just before sexual debut), geographic areas with higher HIV prevalence than the national, and high sexual-risk groups.
authors.affiliation: Infectious Disease Epidemiology Group, Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar, Cornell University, Qatar Foundation, Education City, Doha, Qatar.
authors.forename: Susanne F
authors.initials: SF
authors.lastname: Awad
authors.affiliation: Integrated Delivery, Global Development Program, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle, Washington, United States of America.|Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America.
authors.forename: Sema K
authors.initials: SK
authors.lastname: Sgaier
authors.affiliation: Ministry of Community Development and Mother and Child Health, Lusaka, Zambia.
authors.forename: Bushimbwa C
authors.initials: BC
authors.lastname: Tambatamba
authors.affiliation: Infectious Disease Epidemiology Group, Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar, Cornell University, Qatar Foundation, Education City, Doha, Qatar.
authors.forename: Yousra A
authors.initials: YA
authors.lastname: Mohamoud
authors.affiliation: Integrated Delivery, Global Development Program, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle, Washington, United States of America.
authors.forename: Fiona K
authors.initials: FK
authors.lastname: Lau
authors.affiliation: Office of the U.S. Global AIDS Coordinator, Washington, District of Columbia, United States of America.
authors.forename: Jason B
authors.initials: JB
authors.lastname: Reed
authors.affiliation: United States Agency for International Development, Washington, District of Columbia, United States of America.
authors.forename: Emmanuel
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Njeuhmeli
authors.affiliation: Infectious Disease Epidemiology Group, Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar, Cornell University, Qatar Foundation, Education City, Doha, Qatar.|Department of Healthcare Policy and Research, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University, New York, New York, United States of America.|College of Public Health, Hamad bin Khalifa University, Qatar Foundation, Education City, Doha, Qatar.
authors.forename: Laith J
authors.initials: LJ
authors.lastname: Abu-Raddad
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D002648:Child; D002944:Circumcision, Male / Q000191:economics*; D003362:Cost-Benefit Analysis / Q000191:economics*; D017598:Efficiency, Organizational / Q000191:economics*; D058872:Epidemics / Q000191:economics; D015658:HIV Infections / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000517:prevention & control; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009313:National Health Programs / Q000191:economics; D015995:Prevalence; D012725:Sexual Behavior; D035141:Voluntary Programs / Q000191:economics*; D055815:Young Adult; D015024:Zambia / Q000453:epidemiology