title: Detection of pandemic strain of influenza virus (A/H1N1/pdm09) in pigs, West Africa: implications and considerations for prevention of future influenza pandemics at the source.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Human and animal influenza are inextricably linked. In particular, the pig is uniquely important as a mixing vessel for genetic reassortment of influenza viruses, leading to emergence of novel strains which may cause human pandemics. Significant reduction in transmission of influenza viruses from humans, and other animals, to swine may therefore be crucial for preventing future influenza pandemics. This study investigated the presence of the 2009 pandemic influenza A/H1N1 virus, A(H1N1)pdm09, in Nigerian and Ghanaian pigs, and also determined levels of acceptance of preventive measures which could significantly reduce the transmission of this virus from humans to pigs.
  
  
  METHODS
  Nasal swab specimens from 125 pigs in Ibadan, Nigeria, and Kumasi, Ghana, were tested for the presence of influenza A/California/04/2009 (H1N1) by quantitative antigen-detection ELISA. A semi-structured questionnaire was also administered to pig handlers in the two study areas and responses were analyzed to evaluate their compliance with seven measures for preventing human-to-swine transmission of influenza viruses.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The virus was detected among pigs in the two cities, with prevalence of 8% in Ibadan and 10% in Kumasi. Levels of compliance of pig handlers with relevant preventive measures were also found to be mostly below 25 and 40% in Ibadan and Kumasi, respectively.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Detection of influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 among pigs tested suggests the possibility of human-to-swine transmission, which may proceed even more rapidly, considering the very poor acceptance of basic preventive measures observed in this study. This is also the first report on detection of influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 in Ghanaian pigs. We recommend improvement on personal hygiene among pig handlers, enforcement of sick leave particularly during the first few days of influenza-like illnesses, and training of pig handlers on recognition of influenza-like signs in humans and pigs. These could be crucial for prevention of future influenza pandemics.
authors.affiliation: Centre for Control and Prevention of Zoonoses (CCPZ), University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.|Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, College of Medicine, Bingham University, Karu, via Abuja, Nigeria; phamo2@yahoo.co.nz.
authors.forename: Oluwagbenga A
authors.initials: OA
authors.lastname: Adeola
authors.affiliation: Centre for Control and Prevention of Zoonoses (CCPZ), University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.|Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
authors.forename: Babasola O
authors.initials: BO
authors.lastname: Olugasa
authors.affiliation: Centre for Control and Prevention of Zoonoses (CCPZ), University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.|Department of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Nigeria.|Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Health Sciences, Kwame Nkruma University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana.
authors.forename: Benjamin O
authors.initials: BO
authors.lastname: Emikpe
keywords: Ghana; Nigeria; West Africa; human strain; influenza A(H1N1)pdm09; influenza pandemics; pigs; preventive measures; reverse zoonotic transmission