title: Molecular forensics in avian conservation: a DNA-based approach for identifying mammalian predators of ground-nesting birds and eggs.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) is a ground-nesting bird from the Northern Rocky Mountains and a species at risk of extinction in in multiple U.S. states and Canada. Herein we report results from a proof of concept that mitochondrial and nuclear DNAs from mammalian predator saliva could be non-invasively collected from depredated greater sage-grouse eggshells and carcasses and used for predator species identification. Molecular forensic approaches have been applied to identify predators from depredated remains as one strategy to better understand predator-prey dynamics and guide management strategies. This can aid conservation efforts by correctly identifying predators most likely to impact threatened and endangered species. DNA isolated from non-invasive samples around nesting sites (e.g. fecal or hair samples) is one method that can increase the success and accuracy of predator species identification when compared to relying on nest remains alone.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Predator saliva DNA was collected from depredated eggshells and carcasses using swabs. We sequenced two partial fragments of two mitochondrial genes and obtained microsatellite genotypes using canid specific primers for species and individual identification, respectively. Using this multilocus approach we were able to identify predators, at least down to family, from 11 out of 14 nests (79%) and three out of seven carcasses (47%). Predators detected most frequently were canids (86%), while other taxa included rodents, a striped skunk, and cattle. We attempted to match the genotypes of individual coyotes obtained from eggshells and carcasses with those obtained from fecal samples and coyotes collected in the areas, but no genotype matches were found.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Predation is a main cause of nest failure in ground-nesting birds and can impact reproduction and recruitment. To inform predator management for ground-nesting bird conservation, accurate identification of predator species is necessary. Considering predation can have a high impact on recruitment, predation events are very difficult to observe, and predator species are difficult to identify visually from nest remains, molecular approaches that reduce the need to observe or handle animals offer an additional tool to better understand predator-prey dynamics at nesting sites.
authors.affiliation: United States Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, CO, USA. matt.w.hopken@aphis.usda.gov.
authors.forename: Matthew W
authors.initials: MW
authors.lastname: Hopken
authors.affiliation: Department of Wildland Resources, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA. beth.orning@gmail.com.|Oregon Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA. beth.orning@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Elizabeth K
authors.initials: EK
authors.lastname: Orning
authors.affiliation: Department of Wildland Resources, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA. julie.young@usu.edu.|United States Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Logan, UT, USA. julie.young@usu.edu.
authors.forename: Julie K
authors.initials: JK
authors.lastname: Young
authors.affiliation: United States Department of Agriculture, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, CO, USA. Toni.J.Piaggio@aphis.usda.gov.
authors.forename: Antoinette J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Piaggio
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001717:Birds / Q000235:genetics*; D003247:Conservation of Natural Resources; D004247:DNA / Q000032:analysis*; D004272:DNA, Mitochondrial / Q000235:genetics; D044707:Forensic Sciences / Q000379:methods*; D005838:Genotype; D008322:Mammals / Q000502:physiology*; D018895:Microsatellite Repeats / Q000235:genetics; D009425:Nesting Behavior; D011235:Predatory Behavior
chemical_list: D004272:DNA, Mitochondrial; D004247:DNA