title: 3D printing-assisted fabrication of double-layered optical tissue phantoms for laser tattoo treatments.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Artificial skin phantoms have been developed as an alternative tissue for human skin experiments due to convenient use and easy storage. However, fabricating both thin (∼100 μm) epidermis and relatively thick dermis is often cumbersome, and most developed phantoms have hardly reflected specific human skin types. The objective of this study was to fabricate skin phantoms with 3D printing technique to emulate various human skin types (I-VI) along with the corresponding optical and mechanical properties for laser tattoo removal.
  
  
  METHODS
  Both gelatin and agar powders were mixed with coffee and TiO2 particles to fabricate skin phantoms with materials properties for various skin types (I-VI). A 3D printer was employed to precisely control the thickness of each phantom for epidermis and dermis layers. A number of concentrations of the coffee and TiO2 particles were used to determine the degree of absorption and scattering effects in various skin types. The optical properties between 500 and 1,000 nm for the fabricated phantoms were measured by double-integrating spheres with an inverse adding-doubling (IAD) algorithm. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) and rheometer were also utilized to evaluate optical (absorption and reduced scattering coefficients) and mechanical properties (compression modulus) of the fabricated phantoms, respectively.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Visible color inspections presented that the skin phantoms for types I, III, and VI similarly emulated the color space of the human skin types. The optical property measurements demonstrated that the absorption (μa) and reduced scattering (μ(s')) coefficients decreased with wavelengths. Compared to the human skin type VI, a dermis phantom represented quite equivalent values of μa and μ(s') whereas an epidermis phantom showed up to 30% lower μa but almost identical μ(s') over the wavelengths. The OCT measurements confirmed that the thicknesses of the epidermis and the dermis phantoms were measured to be 138.50 ± 0.01 μm and 0.81 ± 0.04 mm, respectively. The mechanical properties of the phantoms mixed with the agar volume of 40% yielded a compression modulus of 83.7 ± 14.8 kPa, which well corresponded to that of human forearm skin (50-95 kPa).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The 3D printing technique was able to reliably fabricate the double-layered phantoms emulating a variety of skin types (I-VI) along with the comparable optical and mechanical properties. Further investigations will incorporate artificial chromophores into the fabricated skin phantoms to reliably evaluate the new therapeutic wavelengths for laser tattoo removal.
authors.affiliation: Interdisciplinary Program of Marine-Bio, Electrical and Mechanical Engineering, Pukyong National University, Busan, Korea.
authors.forename: Hanna
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Kim
authors.affiliation: Interdisciplinary Program of Marine-Bio, Electrical and Mechanical Engineering, Pukyong National University, Busan, Korea.
authors.forename: Nguyen Trung
authors.initials: NT
authors.lastname: Hau
authors.affiliation: Interdisciplinary Program of Marine-Bio, Electrical and Mechanical Engineering, Pukyong National University, Busan, Korea.
authors.forename: Yu-Gyeong
authors.initials: YG
authors.lastname: Chae
authors.affiliation: Medical Photonics Research Center, Korea Photonics Technology Institute (KOPTI), Gwangju, Korea.
authors.forename: Byeong-Il
authors.initials: BI
authors.lastname: Lee
authors.affiliation: Interdisciplinary Program of Marine-Bio, Electrical and Mechanical Engineering, Pukyong National University, Busan, Korea.|Department of Biomedical Engineering and Center for Marine-Integrated Biomedical Technology (BK21 Plus), Pukyong National University, Busan, Korea.
authors.forename: Hyun Wook
authors.initials: HW
authors.lastname: Kang
mesh_terms: D006801:Humans; D053685:Laser Therapy; D019047:Phantoms, Imaging; D066330:Printing, Three-Dimensional; D012867:Skin; D013653:Tattooing; D041623:Tomography, Optical Coherence / Q000295:instrumentation*
keywords: 3D printing; compression modulus; optical properties; skin phantom