title: Drug crystallization - implications for topical and transdermal delivery.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Crystallization of actives in skin following topical application was suggested by studies in the 1950s and 1960s but is poorly understood. In contrast, the problem of crystallization of actives on skin and in transdermal formulations has been known for many years.
  
  
  METHODS
  With respect to crystallization in skin, this review describes early reports of a skin 'reservoir' and possible reasons underlying its genesis. Techniques to study crystallization on and in skin and in transdermal patches are outlined. The role of the vehicle in skin delivery is emphasised. Studies which have investigated permeation from crystalline particles are described. Approaches to limit crystallization of actives are discussed. Using supersaturation and antinuclean polymers, control of crystal size is possible; controlled release from crystals is also employed in transdermal patches.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Drug crystallization has significant implications for topical and transdermal delivery. Approaches have been developed to counteract the issue for transdermal patches but crystallization in and on the skin for other formulations remains unresolved. Greater knowledge of residence time of excipients and their interaction with skin at the molecular level is critical in order to address the problem. This will lay the foundations for better design of topical/transdermal formulations.
authors.affiliation: a Department of Pharmaceutics , UCL School of Pharmacy , London , UK.
authors.forename: Jonathan
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Hadgraft
authors.affiliation: a Department of Pharmaceutics , UCL School of Pharmacy , London , UK.
authors.forename: Majella E
authors.initials: ME
authors.lastname: Lane
mesh_terms: D000279:Administration, Cutaneous; D002626:Chemistry, Pharmaceutical / Q000379:methods*; D003460:Crystallization; D005079:Excipients / Q000737:chemistry; D006801:Humans; D011108:Polymers / Q000737:chemistry*; D012867:Skin / Q000378:metabolism*; D012869:Skin Absorption; D057968:Transdermal Patch
chemical_list: D005079:Excipients; D011108:Polymers
keywords: Crystallization; excipients; patches; reservoir; skin; supersaturation; topical; transdermal