title: Assessment of blood lead level declines in an area of historical mining with a holistic remediation and abatement program.
abstract: Lead exposure and blood lead levels (BLLs) in the United States have declined dramatically since the 1970s as many widespread lead uses have been discontinued. Large scale mining and mineral processing represents an additional localized source of potential lead exposure in many historical mining communities, such as Butte, Montana. After 25 years of ongoing remediation efforts and a residential metals abatement program that includes blood lead monitoring of Butte children, examination of blood lead trends offers a unique opportunity to assess the effectiveness of Butte's lead source and exposure reduction measures. This study examined BLL trends in Butte children ages 1-5 (n= 2796) from 2003-2010 as compared to a reference dataset matched for similar demographic characteristics over the same period. Blood lead differences across Butte during the same period are also examined. Findings are interpreted with respect to effectiveness of remediation and other factors potentially contributing to ongoing exposure concerns.
  
  
  
  BLLs from Butte were compared with a reference dataset (n=2937) derived from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. The reference dataset was initially matched for child age and sample dates. Additional demographic factors associated with higher BLLs were then evaluated. Weights were applied to make the reference dataset more consistent with the Butte dataset for the three factors that were most disparate (poverty-to-income ratio, house age, and race/ethnicity). A weighted linear mixed regression model showed Butte geometric mean BLLs were higher than reference BLLs for 2003-2004 (3.48vs. 2.05µg/dL), 2005-2006 (2.65vs. 1.80µg/dL), and 2007-2008 (2.2vs. 1.72µg/dL), but comparable for 2009-2010 (1.53vs. 1.51µg/dL). This trend suggests that, over time, the impact of other factors that may be associated with Butte BLLs has been reduced.
  
  
  
  Neighborhood differences were examined by dividing the Butte dataset into the older area called "Uptown", located at higher elevation atop historical mine workings, and "the Flats", at lower elevation and more recently developed. Significant declines in BLLs were observed over time in both areas, though Uptown had slightly higher BLLs than the Flats (2003-2004: 3.57vs. 3.45µg/dL, p=0.7; 2005-2006: 2.84vs. 2.52µg/dL, p=0.1; 2007-2008: 2.58vs. 1.99µg/dL, p=0.001; 2009-2010: 1.71vs. 1.44µg/dL, p=0.02). BLLs were higher when tested in summer/fall than in winter/spring for both neighborhoods, and statistically higher BLLs were found for children in Uptown living in properties built before 1940. Neighborhood differences and the persistence of a greater percentage of high BLLs (>5µg/dL) in Butte vs. the reference dataset support continuation of the home lead abatement program.
  
  
  
  Butte BLL declines likely reflect the cumulative effectiveness of screening efforts, community-wide remediation, and the ongoing metals abatement program in Butte in addition to other factors not accounted for by this study. As evidenced in Butte, abatement programs that include home evaluations and assistance in addressing multiple sources of lead exposure can be an important complement to community-wide soil remediation activities.
authors.affiliation: Ramboll Environ US Corporation, Seattle, WA, United States. Electronic address: rschoof@ramboll.com.
authors.forename: Rosalind A
authors.initials: RA
authors.lastname: Schoof
authors.affiliation: Ramboll Environ US Corporation, Seattle, WA, United States.
authors.forename: Dina L
authors.initials: DL
authors.lastname: Johnson
authors.affiliation: Ramboll Environ US Corporation, Seattle, WA, United States.
authors.forename: Emma R
authors.initials: ER
authors.lastname: Handziuk
authors.affiliation: Ramboll Environ US Corporation, Seattle, WA, United States.
authors.forename: Cynthia Van
authors.initials: CV
authors.lastname: Landingham
authors.affiliation: Ramboll Environ US Corporation, Seattle, WA, United States.
authors.forename: Alma M
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Feldpausch
authors.affiliation: Ramboll Environ US Corporation, Seattle, WA, United States.
authors.forename: Alexa E
authors.initials: AE
authors.lastname: Gallagher
authors.affiliation: Ramboll Environ US Corporation, Seattle, WA, United States.
authors.forename: Linda D
authors.initials: LD
authors.lastname: Dell
authors.affiliation: Ramboll Environ US Corporation, Seattle, WA, United States.
authors.forename: Amy
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Kephart
mesh_terms: D002675:Child, Preschool; D004784:Environmental Monitoring; D004785:Environmental Pollutants / Q000097:blood*; D052918:Environmental Restoration and Remediation; D005260:Female; D006798:Housing; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D007854:Lead / Q000097:blood*; D008297:Male; D008906:Mining; D009009:Montana; D009749:Nutrition Surveys; D011203:Poverty; D044469:Racial Groups
chemical_list: D004785:Environmental Pollutants; D007854:Lead
keywords: Biomonitoring; Blood lead; Children; Exposure; Lead; Mining; NHANES; Remediation; Soil