title: Paralympism, Paralympic values and disability sport: a conceptual and ethical critique.
abstract: This paper explores the conceptual content of Paralympism. It exists by exploring the nascent normative framework that the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) has begun to construct around its constituent sports. The IPC sets out four values: Courage, Determination, Inspiration and Equality.
  
  
  
  Drawing on philosophical ethical methods it offers a critical evaluation of the four values that comprise the IPC position.
  
  
  
  While courage is undoubtedly a moral virtue, there is more than one conception that might inform Paralympism with either/both active and passive content. It is argued that Determination is an instrumental character trait that is not necessarily ethically praiseworthy. While potentially inspiring, the efforts and abilities of Paralympic athletes need not depend on the reception of spectators whom they have no control over. Finally, being an important ethical idea, it is neither clear what kind of equality is aimed for nor how it would be operationalized within sports with respect to access to expensive technology that is often the precondition of Paralympic sporting success. It is concluded that the Paralympic movement has not yet invested sufficient intellectual effort to articulate its ethical basis, and while these four values may have something to do with Paralympism, they are insufficient to articulate the concept. Implications for Rehabilitation Athletes with disabilities are governed by a range of normative frameworks that affect their preparation for and participation in the Paralympic games and associated events. Medical models often espouse a conception of biostatistical normality that derogates persons with disabilities, yet in elite sports abnormalities in structure and function can be highly valued. There is a lack of clarity about the ethical goals for those assisting Paralympic athletes. Governing bodies in disability sports, such as the International Paralympic Committee need to more critically and coherently spell out their ethical vision for Paralympic sports, which should guide athletes and rehabilitation professionals to behave in ways that would command the general public's admiration. Paralympism, Paralympic values and disability sport: a conceptual and ethical critique.
authors.affiliation: a College of Engineering, Swansea University , Swansea , UK.
authors.forename: M J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: McNamee
mesh_terms: D056352:Athletes; D054874:Athletic Performance / Q000502:physiology; D006233:Persons with Disabilities; D006801:Humans; D064846:Sports for Persons with Disabilities / Q000941:ethics*
keywords: Disability sport ethics; paralympic ethics; paralympic philosophy; paralympism