title: Association of genetic and phenotypic variability with geography and climate in three southern California oaks.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Geography and climate shape the distribution of organisms, their genotypes, and their phenotypes. To understand historical and future evolutionary and ecological responses to climate, we compared the association of geography and climate of three oak species (Quercus engelmannii, Quercus berberidifolia, and Quercus cornelius-mulleri) in an environmentally heterogeneous region of southern California at three organizational levels: regional species distributions, genetic variation, and phenotypic variation.
  
  
  METHODS
  We identified climatic variables influencing regional distribution patterns using species distribution models (SDMs), and then tested whether those individual variables are important in shaping genetic (microsatellite) and phenotypic (leaf morphology) variation. We estimated the relative contributions of geography and climate using multivariate redundancy analyses (RDA) with variance partitioning.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The modeled distribution of each species was influenced by climate differently. Our analysis of genetic variation using RDA identified small but significant associations between genetic variation with climate and geography in Q. engelmannii and Q. cornelius-mulleri, but not in Q. berberidifolia, and climate explained more of the variation. Our analysis of phenotypic variation in Q. engelmannii indicated that climate had more impact than geography, but not in Q. berberidifolia. Throughout our analyses, we did not find a consistent pattern in effects of individual climatic variables.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our comparative analysis illustrates that climate influences tree response at all organizational levels, but the important climate factors vary depending on the level and on the species. Because of these species-specific and level-specific responses, today's sympatric species are unlikely to have similar distributions in the future.
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Los Angeles, Box 957239, Los Angeles, California 90095-7239 USA.
authors.forename: Erin C
authors.initials: EC
authors.lastname: Riordan
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Los Angeles, Box 957239, Los Angeles, California 90095-7239 USA.
authors.forename: Paul F
authors.initials: PF
authors.lastname: Gugger
authors.affiliation: Department of Integrative Ecology, Estación Biológica de Doñana (EBD-CSIC), Avenida Américo Vespucio s/n 41092 Seville, Spain.
authors.forename: Joaquín
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Ortego
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Los Angeles, Box 957239, Los Angeles, California 90095-7239 USA.
authors.forename: Carrie
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Smith
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Los Angeles, Box 957239, Los Angeles, California 90095-7239 USA.
authors.forename: Keith
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Gaddis
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Los Angeles, Box 957239, Los Angeles, California 90095-7239 USA vlsork@ucla.edu.
authors.forename: Pam
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Thompson
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Los Angeles, Box 957239, Los Angeles, California 90095-7239 USA Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, University of California Los Angeles, Box 951496, Los Angeles, California 90095-1496 USA vlsork@ucla.edu.
authors.forename: Victoria L
authors.initials: VL
authors.lastname: Sork
mesh_terms: D002140:California; D002980:Climate; D014644:Genetic Variation; D005843:Geography; D008954:Models, Biological; D010641:Phenotype; D063148:Plant Dispersal; D029963:Quercus / Q000235:genetics / Q000502:physiology*; D013045:Species Specificity
keywords: California; Fagaceae; Quercus; climate; genetic variation; geography; isolation by distance; isolation by environment; microsatellite markers; morphology; species distribution modeling