title: Propofol Pharmacokinetics and Estimation of Fetal Propofol Exposure during Mid-Gestational Fetal Surgery: A Maternal-Fetal Sheep Model.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Measuring fetal drug concentrations is extremely difficult in humans. We conducted a study in pregnant sheep to simultaneously describe maternal and fetal concentrations of propofol, a common intravenous anesthetic agent used in humans. Compared to inhalational anesthesia, propofol supplemented anesthesia lowered the dose of desflurane required to provide adequate uterine relaxation during open fetal surgery. This resulted in better intraoperative fetal cardiac outcome. This study describes maternal and fetal propofol pharmacokinetics (PK) using a chronically instrumented maternal-fetal sheep model.
  
  
  METHODS
  Fetal and maternal blood samples were simultaneously collected from eight mid-gestational pregnant ewes during general anesthesia with propofol, remifentanil and desflurane. Nonlinear mixed-effects modeling was performed by using NONMEM software. Total body weight, gestational age and hemodynamic parameters were tested in the covariate analysis. The final model was validated by bootstrapping and visual predictive check.
  
  
  RESULTS
  A total of 160 propofol samples were collected. A 2-compartment maternal PK model with a third fetal compartment appropriately described the data. Mean population parameter estimates for maternal propofol clearance and central volume of distribution were 4.17 L/min and 37.7 L, respectively, in a typical ewe with a median heart rate of 135 beats/min. Increase in maternal heart rate significantly correlated with increase in propofol clearance. The estimated population maternal-fetal inter-compartment clearance was 0.0138 L/min and the volume of distribution of propofol in the fetus was 0.144 L. Fetal propofol clearance was found to be almost negligible compared to maternal clearance and could not be robustly estimated.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  For the first time, a maternal-fetal PK model of propofol in pregnant ewes was successfully developed. This study narrows the gap in our knowledge in maternal-fetal PK model in human. Our study confirms that maternal heart rate has an important influence on the pharmacokinetics of propofol during pregnancy. Much lower propofol concentration in the fetus compared to maternal concentrations explain limited placental transfer in in-vivo paired model, and less direct fetal cardiac depression we observed earlier with propofol supplemented inhalational anesthesia compared to higher dose inhalational anesthesia in humans and sheep.
authors.affiliation: Department of Anesthesiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America.
authors.forename: Pornswan
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Ngamprasertwong
authors.affiliation: Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America.
authors.forename: Min
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Dong
authors.affiliation: Department of Anesthesiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America.|Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America.|Department of Anesthesia, Shanghai Children's Medical Center, Shanghai, China.
authors.forename: Jing
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Niu
authors.affiliation: Department of Anesthesiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America.|Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America.
authors.forename: Raja
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Venkatasubramanian
authors.affiliation: Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America.
authors.forename: Alexander A
authors.initials: AA
authors.lastname: Vinks
authors.affiliation: Department of Anesthesiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America.
authors.forename: Senthilkumar
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Sadhasivam
mesh_terms: D018685:Anesthetics, Inhalation / Q000493:pharmacokinetics; D018686:Anesthetics, Intravenous / Q000493:pharmacokinetics*; D000818:Animals; D001794:Blood Pressure / Q000187:drug effects; D000077335:Desflurane; D005260:Female; D005333:Fetus / Q000187:drug effects / Q000601:surgery; D005865:Gestational Age; D006339:Heart Rate / Q000187:drug effects; D006439:Hemodynamics / Q000187:drug effects; D007530:Isoflurane / Q000031:analogs & derivatives / Q000493:pharmacokinetics; D010880:Piperidines / Q000493:pharmacokinetics; D011247:Pregnancy; D015742:Propofol / Q000493:pharmacokinetics*; D000077208:Remifentanil; D012756:Sheep; D034561:Sheep, Domestic
chemical_list: D018685:Anesthetics, Inhalation; D018686:Anesthetics, Intravenous; D010880:Piperidines; D000077335:Desflurane; D007530:Isoflurane; D000077208:Remifentanil; D015742:Propofol