title: Heroin craving and its correlations with clinical outcome indicators in people with heroin dependence receiving methadone maintenance treatment.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Craving for substance use has been added as one of the diagnostic criteria of substance use disorders in DSM-5. However, further research is necessary to examine and expand the clinical potential of craving in the assessment and treatment for heroin users. This study aimed to examine the psychometrics of the Desire for Drug Questionnaire-Chinese Mandarin version (DDQ-CM) and its clinical utility of assessing craving for heroin measured among heroin users with methadone maintenance treatment (MMT).
  
  
  METHODS
  Self-reported craving for heroin use was measured on the DDQ-CM and visual analog scale among 314 intravenous heroin users receiving MMT. Self-reported heroin dependence, attitude toward heroin use, readiness to change heroin use, and depression were collected.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The results found that although the original three-factor model was acceptable for applying the DDQ-CM for heroin users with MMT, only the concurrent validity of the subscales of Desire and Intention and Negative Reinforcement was supported but not that of Control. Meanwhile, the levels of craving on the subscales of Desire and Intention and of Negative Reinforcement on the DDQ-CM were positively associated with the levels of heroin dependence, positive and negative attitudes toward heroin use, and depression, but negatively associated with readiness to change heroin use.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This study supported the application of the subscales of Desire and Intention and Negative Reinforcement on the DDQ-CM to measure heroin craving in Taiwanese-Chinese heroin users and supported the clinical implication of craving in heroin users with MMT.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine and Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
authors.forename: Cheng-Fang
authors.initials: CF
authors.lastname: Yen
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine and Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
authors.forename: Huang-Chi
authors.initials: HC
authors.lastname: Lin
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine and Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
authors.forename: Peng-Wei
authors.initials: PW
authors.lastname: Wang
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine and Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Department of Psychiatry, Kaohsiung Municipal Hsiao-Kang Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
authors.forename: Chih-Hung
authors.initials: CH
authors.lastname: Ko
authors.affiliation: Yuli Hospital, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Hualien, Taiwan.
authors.forename: Kun-Hua
authors.initials: KH
authors.lastname: Lee
authors.affiliation: Departments of Community Psychiatry, Kai-Suan Psychiatric Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
authors.forename: Chih-Yao
authors.initials: CY
authors.lastname: Hsu
authors.affiliation: Departments of Community Psychiatry, Kai-Suan Psychiatric Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
authors.forename: Kuan-Sheng
authors.initials: KS
authors.lastname: Chung
authors.affiliation: Departments of Community Psychiatry, Kai-Suan Psychiatric Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan. Electronic address: wuhc1@yahoo.com.tw.
authors.forename: Hung-Chi
authors.initials: HC
authors.lastname: Wu
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan. Electronic address: cpcheng.psy@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Chung-Ping
authors.initials: CP
authors.lastname: Cheng
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D066249:Craving; D003863:Depression; D005260:Female; D003932:Heroin; D006556:Heroin Dependence / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000523:psychology*; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008691:Methadone / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D008875:Middle Aged; D058850:Opiate Substitution Treatment / Q000379:methods; D011594:Psychometrics; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D013624:Taiwan / Q000453:epidemiology
chemical_list: D003932:Heroin; D008691:Methadone