title: Prevalence of Vitamin D Deficiency in Singapore: Its Implications to Cardiovascular Risk Factors.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Vitamin D deficiency is a global health challenge and has been linked to type 2 diabetes and other chronic diseases. However, the relationship between vitamin D status, body composition, and cardiovascular risks has not been well characterized in Asian populations. The objectives of this study were to examine the factors associated with the low vitamin D levels in a sunny tropical region and to assess the role of vitamin D status in cardiovascular risk factors.
  
  
  METHODS
  This was a cross-sectional study. One hundred and fourteen healthy participants (59 males and 55 females) residing in Singapore took part in this study. Plasma 25OH-D3 concentration was measured by using LC-MS/MS. Body fat (%) was measured by using three different techniques including bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), BOD POD, and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA). Basic anthropometric measurements, fasting blood glucose (FBG), fasting serum insulin (FSI), and lipid profiles were obtained using standard protocols.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Approximately 42% of the participants were vitamin D deficient (< 20 ng/mL). Vitamin D status was inversely associated with body fat (%), homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), and total cholesterol/high density lipoprotein (TC/HDL) ratio, while positively associated with lean body mass (LBM) and hand grip strength (HGS).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in a sunny tropical region reinforces the need to recognize that sunlight alone is not the precursor for optimal vitamin D status. This raises the need to investigate public health measures that will encourage exposure to sunlight without overexposure that is harmful to skin. More importantly, vitamin D deficiency is associated with increased cardiovascular risks, i.e. HOMA-IR, TC/HDL, and LDL/HDL. Future studies should attempt to elucidate the potential mechanisms.
authors.affiliation: Clinical Nutrition Research Centre, Centre for Translational Medicine, 14 Medical Drive #07-02, MD 6 Building, Singapore 117599, Singapore.|Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Brenner Centre for Molecular Medicine, 30 Medical Drive, Singapore 117609, Singapore.
authors.forename: Xinyan
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Bi
authors.affiliation: Clinical Nutrition Research Centre, Centre for Translational Medicine, 14 Medical Drive #07-02, MD 6 Building, Singapore 117599, Singapore.|Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Brenner Centre for Molecular Medicine, 30 Medical Drive, Singapore 117609, Singapore.
authors.forename: Siew Ling
authors.initials: SL
authors.lastname: Tey
authors.affiliation: Clinical Nutrition Research Centre, Centre for Translational Medicine, 14 Medical Drive #07-02, MD 6 Building, Singapore 117599, Singapore.|Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Brenner Centre for Molecular Medicine, 30 Medical Drive, Singapore 117609, Singapore.
authors.forename: Claudia
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Leong
authors.affiliation: Clinical Nutrition Research Centre, Centre for Translational Medicine, 14 Medical Drive #07-02, MD 6 Building, Singapore 117599, Singapore.|Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Brenner Centre for Molecular Medicine, 30 Medical Drive, Singapore 117609, Singapore.
authors.forename: Rina
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Quek
authors.affiliation: Clinical Nutrition Research Centre, Centre for Translational Medicine, 14 Medical Drive #07-02, MD 6 Building, Singapore 117599, Singapore.|Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Brenner Centre for Molecular Medicine, 30 Medical Drive, Singapore 117609, Singapore.|Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117599, Singapore.
authors.forename: Christiani Jeyakumar
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: Henry
mesh_terms: D015502:Absorptiometry, Photon; D000273:Adipose Tissue; D000328:Adult; D001786:Blood Glucose / Q000032:analysis; D002318:Cardiovascular Diseases / Q000209:etiology*; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007328:Insulin / Q000097:blood; D008055:Lipids / Q000097:blood; D008297:Male; D015995:Prevalence; D012307:Risk Factors; D012846:Singapore / Q000453:epidemiology; D014807:Vitamin D / Q000097:blood; D014808:Vitamin D Deficiency / Q000150:complications / Q000453:epidemiology*
chemical_list: D001786:Blood Glucose; D007328:Insulin; D008055:Lipids; D014807:Vitamin D