title: Mechanical transfer of Theileria orientalis: possible roles of biting arthropods, colostrum and husbandry practices in disease transmission.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The intracellular protozoal parasite Theileria orientalis has rapidly spread across South-eastern Australia, substantially impacting local cattle industries since 2006. Haemaphysalis longicornis appears to be a biological vector in the endemic regions. Mechanical transfer of blood by biting arthropods, in colostrum or iatrogenic transmission though husbandry procedures is another possible mode of transmission. This study assesses the risk of these mechanical modes of transmission.
  
  
  METHODS
  Blood was collected from a T. orientalis Ikeda positive Angus steer, and was inoculated into the jugular vein of 9 calves in 3 treatment groups, each with 3 animals. Calves in Group 1 received 10 ml of cryopreserved blood, while those in Groups 2 and 3 received 1 ml (fresh blood) and 0.1 ml (cryopreserved), respectively. An additional three animals remained as negative controls and the donor calf was also followed as a positive control. Blood was collected over 3 months, and analysed via qPCR for the presence of the parasite. Samples of the sucking louse Linognathus vituli were collected opportunistically from calves 5 months after inoculation and tested for T. orientalis. For the colostral transmission study, 30 samples of blood and colostrum were collected from cows at calving in an endemic herd. These samples along with blood from their calves were tested by qPCR for T. orientalis and for antibodies to the major piroplasm surface protein (MPSP).
  
  
  RESULTS
  Eight of the nine inoculated calves became positive for T. orientalis. The prepatent period of these infections was inversely correlated with inoculation dose. All negative control calves remained negative and the positive control calf remained positive. Samples of L. vituli tested positive for T. orientalis Ikeda, while some samples of colostrum were also shown to be qPCR and anti-MPSP positive. All calves in the colostral study tested qPCR negative although one was antibody-positive.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  T. orientalis is capable of being mechanically transferred by intravenous inoculation with small volumes of blood and is detectable up to 5 months post-infection. Animals infected by this means may play a significant role in the transmission of the disease by acting as asymptomatic carriers. Other modes of blood transfer, including biting arthropods and colostral transfer are also possible modes of disease transmission.
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia. hammer.jade@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Jade Frederick
authors.initials: JF
authors.lastname: Hammer
authors.affiliation: Elizabeth Macarthur Institute, New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Menangle, NSW, Australia. cheryl.jenkins@dpi.nsw.gov.au.
authors.forename: Cheryl
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Jenkins
authors.affiliation: The Ithree Institute, University of Technology Sydney, Broadway, NSW, Australia. daniel.bogema@dpi.nsw.gov.au.
authors.forename: Daniel
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Bogema
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia. david.emery@sydney.edu.au.
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Emery
mesh_terms: D000822:Animal Husbandry; D000818:Animals; D000854:Anoplura / Q000469:parasitology; D000913:Antibodies, Protozoan / Q000032:analysis*; D001179:Arthropod Vectors / Q000469:parasitology*; D001181:Arthropods / Q000469:parasitology*; D002417:Cattle; D002418:Cattle Diseases / Q000469:parasitology / Q000635:transmission*; D003126:Colostrum / Q000276:immunology / Q000469:parasitology; D005260:Female; D026863:Ixodidae / Q000469:parasitology; D008297:Male; D011247:Pregnancy; D016794:Theileria / Q000235:genetics / Q000276:immunology / Q000502:physiology*; D013801:Theileriasis / Q000469:parasitology / Q000635:transmission*
chemical_list: D000913:Antibodies, Protozoan