title: A Transgenic Camelina sativa Seed Oil Effectively Replaces Fish Oil as a Dietary Source of Eicosapentaenoic Acid in Mice.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Fish currently supplies only 40% of the eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) required to allow all individuals globally to meet the minimum intake recommendation of 500 mg/d. Therefore, alternative sustainable sources are needed.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  The main objective was to investigate the ability of genetically engineered Camelina sativa (20% EPA) oil (CO) to enrich tissue EPA and DHA relative to an EPA-rich fish oil (FO) in mammals.
  
  
  METHODS
  Six-week-old male C57BL/6J mice were fed for 10 wk either a palm oil-containing control (C) diet or diets supplemented with EPA-CO or FO, with the C, low-EPA CO (COL), high-EPA CO (COH), low-EPA FO (FOL), and high-EPA FO (FOH) diets providing 0, 0.4, 3.4, 0.3, and 2.9 g EPA/kg diet, respectively. Liver, muscle, and brain were collected for fatty acid analysis, and blood glucose and serum lipids were quantified. The expression of selected hepatic genes involved in EPA and DHA biosynthesis and in modulating their cellular impact was determined.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The oils were well tolerated, with significantly greater weight gain in the COH and FOH groups relative to the C group (P < 0.001). Significantly lower (36-38%) blood glucose concentrations were evident in the FOH and COH mice relative to C mice (P < 0.01). Hepatic EPA concentrations were higher in all EPA groups relative to the C group (P < 0.001), with concentrations of 0.0, 0.4, 2.9, 0.2, and 3.6 g/100 g liver total lipids in the C, COL, COH, FOL, and FOH groups, respectively. Comparable dose-independent enrichments of liver DHA were observed in mice fed CO and FO diets (P < 0.001). Relative to the C group, lower fatty acid desaturase 1 (Fads1) expression (P < 0.005) was observed in the COH and FOH groups. Higher fatty acid desaturase 2 (Fads2), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (Ppara), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (Pparg) (P < 0.005) expressions were induced by CO. No impact of treatment on liver X receptor α (Lxra) or sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1c (Srebp1c) was evident.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Oil from transgenic Camelina is a bioavailable source of EPA in mice. These data provide support for the future assessment of this oil in a human feeding trial.
authors.affiliation: Department of Nutrition, Norwich Medical School, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom; n.tejera-hernandez@uea.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Noemi
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Tejera
authors.affiliation: Department of Nutrition, Norwich Medical School, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom; Institute of Food Research, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom;
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Vauzour
authors.affiliation: Institute of Aquaculture, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, United Kingdom;
authors.forename: Monica B
authors.initials: MB
authors.lastname: Betancor
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological Chemistry and Crop Protection, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, United Kingdom; and.
authors.forename: Olga
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Sayanova
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological Chemistry and Crop Protection, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, United Kingdom; and.
authors.forename: Sarah
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Usher
authors.affiliation: Department of Nutrition, Norwich Medical School, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom;
authors.forename: Marianne
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Cochard
authors.affiliation: Institute of Food Research, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom;
authors.forename: Neil
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Rigby
authors.affiliation: Department of Agricultural Production, School of Agricultural Engineering, Technical University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
authors.forename: Noemi
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Ruiz-Lopez
authors.affiliation: Department of Agricultural Production, School of Agricultural Engineering, Technical University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Menoyo
authors.affiliation: Institute of Aquaculture, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, United Kingdom;
authors.forename: Douglas R
authors.initials: DR
authors.lastname: Tocher
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological Chemistry and Crop Protection, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, United Kingdom; and.
authors.forename: Johnathan A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Napier
authors.affiliation: Department of Nutrition, Norwich Medical School, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom;
authors.forename: Anne Marie
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Minihane
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001682:Biological Availability; D001786:Blood Glucose / Q000378:metabolism; D019607:Brassicaceae / Q000737:chemistry / Q000235:genetics*; D000090943:Delta-5 Fatty Acid Desaturase; D004032:Diet; D004281:Docosahexaenoic Acids / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000378:metabolism; D015118:Eicosapentaenoic Acid / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000378:metabolism / Q000493:pharmacokinetics; D044943:Fatty Acid Desaturases / Q000378:metabolism; D005395:Fish Oils / Q000378:metabolism*; D008099:Liver / Q000378:metabolism; D008297:Male; D008810:Mice, Inbred C57BL; D047493:PPAR alpha / Q000378:metabolism; D047495:PPAR gamma / Q000378:metabolism; D010938:Plant Oils / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000493:pharmacokinetics; D030821:Plants, Genetically Modified / Q000737:chemistry*; D012639:Seeds / Q000737:chemistry*; D015430:Weight Gain / Q000187:drug effects
chemical_list: D001786:Blood Glucose; D000090943:Delta-5 Fatty Acid Desaturase; D005395:Fish Oils; D047493:PPAR alpha; D047495:PPAR gamma; D010938:Plant Oils; D004281:Docosahexaenoic Acids; D015118:Eicosapentaenoic Acid; D044943:Fatty Acid Desaturases; C000716847:FADS1 protein, human
keywords: Camelina oil; DHA; EPA; Fads; TG sn-2; desaturation; fish oil; n–3 PUFA; sustainability; transgenic