title: Young people with Type 1 diabetes of non-white ethnicity and lower socio-economic status have poorer glycaemic control in England and Wales.
abstract: The impact of ethnicity and socio-economic status (SES) on glycaemic control during childhood Type 1 diabetes is poorly understood in England and Wales.
  
  
  
  We studied 18 478 children with Type 1 diabetes (< 19 years) attending diabetes clinics and included in the 2012-2013 National Paediatric Diabetes Audit. Self-identified ethnicity was categorized as white, Asian, black, mixed, other and 'not-stated' (did not to divulge ethnicity). A small area measure of SES was estimated from the Index of Multiple Deprivation. Multiple linear regression was used to assess associations between ethnicity, SES and glycaemic control (mean HbA1clevels) accounting for age, gender and diabetes duration. The impact of insulin pump use on the ethnicity/SES-HbA1cassociations was tested in 13 962 children.
  
  
  
  All children from minority ethnic groups had higher mean HbA1ccompared with white children, with largest differences observed in black and mixed ethnicities [8 mmol/mol (2.9%), 95% CI 5-11 and 7 mmol/mol (2.8%), 95% CI 5-9, respectively]. Lower SES was associated with higher mean HbA1cwith a dose effect. The lowest SES group had a mean HbA1cthat was 7 mmol/mol (2.8%) (95% CI 6-8) higher compared with the highest SES group, adjusted for ethnicity. Estimates for ethnicity were attenuated, but significant on adjustment for SES. Fewer non-white (white 20.3 vs. black 5.5%) and deprived (least deprived 21.1 vs. most deprived 13.2%) children were on insulin pump therapy. Ethnicity and SES remained significant predictors of HbA1cafter accounting for insulin pump use.
  
  
  
  The association between ethnicity and glycaemic control persists after adjustment for deprivation and pump use. An alternative approach to intensive insulin therapy might benefit these vulnerable children.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Child Health, University College London (UCL), London, UK. a.khanolkar@ucl.ac.uk.|Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden. a.khanolkar@ucl.ac.uk.
authors.forename: A R
authors.initials: AR
authors.lastname: Khanolkar
authors.affiliation: Institute of Child Health, University College London (UCL), London, UK.
authors.forename: R
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Amin
authors.affiliation: Institute of Child Health, University College London (UCL), London, UK.|Institute of Psychology, Health and Society, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK.
authors.forename: D
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Taylor-Robinson
authors.affiliation: Institute of Child Health, University College London (UCL), London, UK.
authors.forename: R M
authors.initials: RM
authors.lastname: Viner
authors.affiliation: Department of Child Health, University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff, UK.
authors.forename: J T
authors.initials: JT
authors.lastname: Warner
authors.affiliation: Institute of Child Health, University College London (UCL), London, UK.
authors.forename: T
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Stephenson
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D001786:Blood Glucose / Q000378:metabolism; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D003922:Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1 / Q000097:blood* / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000208:ethnology*; D004739:England / Q000453:epidemiology; D005006:Ethnicity; D005260:Female; D006442:Glycated Hemoglobin / Q000378:metabolism*; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D008297:Male; D008913:Minority Groups / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D012923:Social Class; D014852:Wales / Q000453:epidemiology; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D001786:Blood Glucose; D006442:Glycated Hemoglobin