title: Archaeal Distribution in Moonmilk Deposits from Alpine Caves and Their Ecophysiological Potential.
abstract: (Alpine) caves are, in general, windows into the Earth's subsurface. Frequently occurring structures in caves such as moonmilk (secondary calcite deposits) offer the opportunity to study intraterrestrial microbial communities, adapted to oligotrophic and cold conditions. This is an important research field regarding the dimensions of subsurface systems and cold regions on Earth. On a methodological level, moonmilk deposits from 11 caves in the Austrian Alps were collected aseptically and investigated using a molecular (qPCR and DGGE sequencing-based) methodology in order to study the occurrence, abundance, and diversity of the prevailing native Archaea community. Furthermore, these Archaea were enriched in complex media and studied regarding their physiology, with a media selection targeting different physiological requirements, e.g. methanogenesis and ammonia oxidation. The investigation of the environmental samples showed that all moonmilk deposits were characterized by the presence of the same few habitat-specific archaeal species, showing high abundances and constituting about 50 % of the total microbial communities. The largest fraction of these Archaea was ammonia-oxidizing Thaumarchaeota, while another abundant group was very distantly related to extremophilic Euryarchaeota (Moonmilk Archaea). The archaeal community showed a depth- and oxygen-dependent stratification. Archaea were much more abundant (around 80 %), compared to bacteria, in the actively forming surface part of moonmilk deposits, decreasing to about 5 % down to the bedrock. Via extensive cultivation efforts, it was possible to enrich the enigmatic Moonmilk Archaea and also AOA significantly above the level of bacteria. The most expedient prerequisites for cultivating Moonmilk Archaea were a cold temperature, oligotrophic conditions, short incubation times, a moonmilk surface inoculum, the application of erythromycin, and anaerobic (microaerophilic) conditions. On a physiological level, it seems that methanogenesis is of marginal importance, while ammonia oxidation and a still undiscovered metabolic pathway are vital elements in the (archaeal) moonmilk biome.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Technikerstrasse 25, A-6020, Innsbruck, Austria. christoph.reitschuler@chello.at.
authors.forename: Christoph
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Reitschuler
authors.affiliation: Institute of Geology, University of Innsbruck, Innrain 52, A-6020, Innsbruck, Austria.
authors.forename: Christoph
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Spötl
authors.affiliation: Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Technikerstrasse 25, A-6020, Innsbruck, Austria.
authors.forename: Katrin
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Hofmann
authors.affiliation: Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Technikerstrasse 25, A-6020, Innsbruck, Austria.
authors.forename: Andreas O
authors.initials: AO
authors.lastname: Wagner
authors.affiliation: Institute of Microbiology, University of Innsbruck, Technikerstrasse 25, A-6020, Innsbruck, Austria.
authors.forename: Paul
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Illmer
mesh_terms: D000641:Ammonia / Q000378:metabolism; D001105:Archaea / Q000145:classification / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D001317:Austria; D059552:Caves; D019641:DNA, Archaeal / Q000235:genetics; D017753:Ecosystem; D019015:Geologic Sediments / Q000382:microbiology*; D010084:Oxidation-Reduction; D010802:Phylogeny
chemical_list: D019641:DNA, Archaeal; D000641:Ammonia
keywords: Ammonia-Oxidizing Archaea; Methanogens; Microbial Cave communities; Moonmilk; Non-extremophilic Archaea; Uncultured Archaea