title: An open air research study of blast-induced traumatic brain injury to goats.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  We once reported blast-induced traumatic brain injury (bTBI) in confined space. Here, bTBI was studied again on goats in the open air using 3.0 kg trinitrotoluene.
  
  
  METHODS
  The goats were placed at 2, 4, 6 and 8 m far from explosion center. Trinitrotoluene (TNT) was used as the source of the blast wave and the pressure at each distance was recorded. The systemic physiology, electroencephalogram, serum level of S-100 beta, and neuron specific enolase (NSE) were determined pre and post the exposure. Neuroanatomy and neuropathology were observed 4 h after the exposure.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Simple blast waveforms were recorded with parameters of 702.8 kPa-0.442 ms, 148.4 kPa-2.503 ms, 73.9 kPa-3.233 ms, and 41.9 kPa-5.898 ms at 2, 4, 6 and 8 m respectively. Encephalic blast overpressure was on the first time recorded in the literature by us at 104.2 kPa-0.60 ms at 2 m, where mortality and burn rate were 44% and 44%. Gross examination showed that bTBI was mainly manifested as congestive expansion of blood vessels and subarachnoid hemorrhage, which had a total incidence of 25% and 19% in 36 goats. Microscopical observation found that the main pathohistological changes were enlarged perivascular space (21/36, 58%), small hemorrhages (9/36, 25%), vascular dilatation and congestion (8/36, 22%), and less subarachnoid hemorrhage (2/36, 6%). After explosion, serum levels of S-100b and NSE were elevated, and EEG changed into slow frequency with declined amplitude. The results indicated that severity and incidence of bTBI is related to the intensity of blast overpressure.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Blast wave can pass through the skull to directly injure brain tissue.
authors.affiliation: Research Institute of Surgery, Daping Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400042, China.
authors.forename: Hui-Jun
authors.initials: HJ
authors.lastname: Chen
authors.forename: Chuan
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Xu
authors.forename: Yue
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Li
authors.forename: Zhi-Qiang
authors.initials: ZQ
authors.lastname: Chen
authors.forename: Guan-Hua
authors.initials: GH
authors.lastname: Li
authors.forename: Zhao-Xia
authors.initials: ZX
authors.lastname: Duan
authors.forename: Xiao-Xia
authors.initials: XX
authors.lastname: Li
authors.forename: Jie-Yuan
authors.initials: JY
authors.lastname: Zhang
authors.forename: Zhe
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Wang
authors.forename: Hua
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Feng
authors.forename: Bing-Cang
authors.initials: BC
authors.lastname: Li
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001753:Blast Injuries / Q000150:complications*; D001921:Brain / Q000473:pathology; D000070642:Brain Injuries, Traumatic / Q000209:etiology* / Q000473:pathology; D004569:Electroencephalography; D006041:Goats; D008297:Male; D010751:Phosphopyruvate Hydratase / Q000097:blood; D064568:S100 Calcium Binding Protein beta Subunit / Q000097:blood
chemical_list: D064568:S100 Calcium Binding Protein beta Subunit; D010751:Phosphopyruvate Hydratase