title: Norovirus vaccines: Correlates of protection, challenges and limitations.
abstract: Norovirus (NoV) is responsible for at least 50% of all gastroenteritis outbreaks worldwide. NoVs are classified into 6 different genogroups (GGI- GGVI) based on the viral capsid protein with NoV genogroup II genotype 4 (GII.4) being the predominant strain causing human diseases. Supportive therapy involving reversal of dehydration and electrolyte deficiency is the main treatment of NoV gastroenteritis. However, the worldwide increased recognition of NoV as an important agent of diarrheal gastroenteritis prompted researchers to focus on establishing preventive strategies conferring long-lasting immunity. This review describes the current status of animal and human vaccine models/studies targeting NoV and addresses the factors hampering the development of a broadly effective vaccine.
authors.affiliation: a Medical Laboratory Sciences Program, American University of Beirut , Beirut , Lebanon.
authors.forename: Nada M
authors.initials: NM
authors.lastname: Melhem
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D015415:Biomarkers; D017250:Caliciviridae Infections / Q000517:prevention & control*; D006801:Humans; D029322:Norovirus / Q000276:immunology*; D014765:Viral Vaccines / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000276:immunology*
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D014765:Viral Vaccines
keywords: NoV; diversity; genogroups; immunity; vaccine; virus-like particles
references.citation: J Med Virol. 2011 Dec;83(12):2135-42
references.pmid: 22012721
references.citation: J Virol. 2013 Nov;87(21):11798-805
references.pmid: 23986582
references.citation: Science. 2014 Nov 7;346(6210):755-9
references.pmid: 25378626
references.citation: J Virol. 2010 Sep;84(17):8617-25
references.pmid: 20554772
references.citation: Vaccine. 2012 May 21;30(24):3580-6
references.pmid: 22469864
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2002 May 1;185(9):1335-7
references.pmid: 12001052
references.citation: J Med Virol. 2015 Oct;87(10):1656-61
references.pmid: 25946711
references.citation: Nat Med. 2012 Jan 29;18(2):274-80
references.pmid: 22286307
references.citation: J Virol. 2014 May;88(9):5122-37
references.pmid: 24574391
references.citation: J Med Virol. 2014 Dec;86(12):2055-64
references.pmid: 24531909
references.citation: Science. 2011 Aug 12;333(6044):850-6
references.pmid: 21798894
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2014 Dec 1;210(11):1755-62
references.pmid: 24970849
references.citation: J Virol. 2009 Nov;83(22):11890-901
references.pmid: 19759138
references.citation: Vaccine. 2006 Jun 12;24(24):5220-34
references.pmid: 16650512
references.citation: J Virol. 2013 Jun;87(11):6270-82
references.pmid: 23536665
references.citation: Pediatr Transplant. 2011 Nov;15(7):718-21
references.pmid: 21883746
references.citation: Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2010 Sep;29(9):855-9
references.pmid: 20581736
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2010 Oct 15;202(8):1212-8
references.pmid: 20815703
references.citation: Virology. 2002 Aug 1;299(2):225-239
references.pmid: 12202225
references.citation: J Virol. 2002 Mar;76(6):3023-30
references.pmid: 11861868
references.citation: PLoS One. 2008 Jan 23;3(1):e1485
references.pmid: 18213393
references.citation: J Med Virol. 2015 Apr;87(4):675-82
references.pmid: 25655810
references.citation: Lancet. 2015 Jan 10;385(9963):117-71
references.pmid: 25530442
references.citation: Immunology. 2012 Jan;135(1):89-99
references.pmid: 22044070
references.citation: J Med Virol. 2008 Mar;80(3):506-9
references.pmid: 18205231
references.citation: Science. 2010 Aug 13;329(5993):856-61
references.pmid: 20616233
references.citation: PLoS One. 2013;8(2):e56239
references.pmid: 23437102
references.citation: Foodborne Pathog Dis. 2015 Jun;12(6):500-5
references.pmid: 25789571
references.citation: Epidemiol Infect. 2013 Aug;141(8):1572-84
references.pmid: 23507473
references.citation: Rev Med Virol. 2013 Nov;23(6):355-66
references.pmid: 23959967
references.citation: Mucosal Immunol. 2015 Jan;8(1):1-17
references.pmid: 25465100
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011 Jan 4;108(1):325-30
references.pmid: 21173246
references.citation: Eur J Immunol. 2015 Oct;45(10 ):2742-57
references.pmid: 26256101
references.citation: J Virol. 2009 Apr;83(7):3212-27
references.pmid: 19176631
references.citation: J Gen Virol. 2014 Feb;95(Pt 2):278-91
references.pmid: 24243731
references.citation: J Pediatr. 2013 Feb;162(2):349-56
references.pmid: 22939927
references.citation: Vaccine. 2003 Jan 17;21(5-6):376-85
references.pmid: 12531635
references.citation: Clin Exp Immunol. 2015 Nov;182(2):195-203
references.pmid: 26178578
references.citation: Epidemiol Infect. 2015 Jun;143(8):1710-7
references.pmid: 25336060
references.citation: PLoS One. 2013 Sep 04;8(9):e72788
references.pmid: 24023773
references.citation: Vaccine. 2011 Oct 19;29(45):8126-33
references.pmid: 21854823
references.citation: Int Rev Immunol. 2004 Sep-Dec;23(5-6):423-36
references.pmid: 15370274
references.citation: J Virol. 1998 Feb;72(2):1345-53
references.pmid: 9445035
references.citation: Science. 2011 Dec 16;334(6062):1484-5
references.pmid: 22174223
references.citation: Clin Microbiol Infect. 2014 Aug;20(8):731-40
references.pmid: 24813073
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 2009 Oct 29;361(18):1776-85
references.pmid: 19864676
references.citation: J Virol. 2012 Jan;86(2):1214-26
references.pmid: 22090110
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 2008 Jul;46(7):2406-9
references.pmid: 18495859
references.citation: Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2007 Jan;26(1):46-9
references.pmid: 17195705
references.citation: J Gen Virol. 2015 Jul;96(Pt 7):1504-14
references.pmid: 25502652
references.citation: MMWR Recomm Rep. 2011 Mar 4;60(RR-3):1-18
references.pmid: 21368741
references.citation: Nat Rev Microbiol. 2010 Mar;8(3):231-41
references.pmid: 20125087
references.citation: J Virol. 2012 Jan;86(2):873-83
references.pmid: 22090098
references.citation: J Virol. 2005 Mar;79(5):2900-9
references.pmid: 15709009
references.citation: Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2012 Feb;19(2):284-7
references.pmid: 22190401
references.citation: Virology. 2014 Feb;450-451:355-8
references.pmid: 24503099
references.citation: Vaccine. 2007 Dec 5;25(50):8448-59
references.pmid: 18022293
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2005 Mar 1;191(5):749-54
references.pmid: 15688291
references.citation: Virol J. 2009 Sep 25;6:150
references.pmid: 19781066
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 2014 Aug;52(8):3088-90
references.pmid: 24899037
references.citation: Trends Microbiol. 2011 May;19(5):233-40
references.pmid: 21310617
references.citation: Expert Rev Vaccines. 2013 Feb;12(2):155-67
references.pmid: 23414407
references.citation: Eur J Pediatr. 2015 Dec;174(12):1679-83
references.pmid: 26152345
references.citation: J Virol. 2006 Nov;80(21):10372-81
references.pmid: 17041218
references.citation: Clin Infect Dis. 2012 Apr;54(7):931-7
references.pmid: 22291099
references.citation: Gut. 2009 Aug;58(8):1070-7
references.pmid: 19036950
references.citation: J Med Virol. 2011 Mar;83(3):525-31
references.pmid: 21264875
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2008 Aug;14(8):1224-31
references.pmid: 18680645
references.citation: J Virol. 2006 Jun;80(11):5104-12
references.pmid: 16698991
references.citation: Lancet. 2012 Dec 15;380(9859):2095-128
references.pmid: 23245604
references.citation: PLoS Pathog. 2013;9(9):e1003592
references.pmid: 24039576
references.citation: J Virol. 2008 Feb;82(4):1777-86
references.pmid: 18045944
references.citation: J Virol. 2014 Sep 1;88(17):9728-43
references.pmid: 24920797
references.citation: Vaccine. 2008 Jan 24;26(4):460-8
references.pmid: 18160189
references.citation: PLoS One. 2013 Jul 26;8(7):e70409
references.pmid: 23922988
references.citation: Nat Med. 2013 Oct;19(10 ):1305-12
references.pmid: 24056771
references.citation: Mol Biol Evol. 2009 Sep;26(9):1993-2003
references.pmid: 19487333
references.citation: Curr Opin Virol. 2014 Aug;7:88-94
references.pmid: 25000207
references.citation: Nat Med. 2003 May;9(5):548-53
references.pmid: 12692541
references.citation: J Med Virol. 2013 Jul;85(7):1299-306
references.pmid: 23918547
references.citation: PLoS One. 2009;4(4):e5058
references.pmid: 19337380
references.citation: J Gen Virol. 2013 Aug;94(Pt 8):1761-8
references.pmid: 23636823
references.citation: Foodborne Pathog Dis. 2013 May;10(5):461-6
references.pmid: 23627928
references.citation: Nat Med. 2008 Jan;14(1):25-7
references.pmid: 18064037
references.citation: Clin Immunol. 2003 Sep;108(3):241-7
references.pmid: 14499247
references.citation: J Virol. 2011 Jan;85(2):753-64
references.pmid: 21068235
references.citation: Clin Microbiol Rev. 2015 Jan;28(1):134-64
references.pmid: 25567225
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2012 Nov;206(9):1386-93
references.pmid: 22927452
references.citation: Science. 2010 Aug 13;329(5993):811-7
references.pmid: 20616231
references.citation: Open Forum Infect Dis. 2015 Jul 01;2(3):ofv084
references.pmid: 26180833
references.citation: MBio. 2013 Jul 16;4(4):null
references.pmid: 23860770
references.citation: J Virol. 2013 Sep;87(17):9547-57
references.pmid: 23785216
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2015 Aug 1;212(3):397-405
references.pmid: 25635121
references.citation: J Gen Virol. 2010 Mar;91(Pt 3):734-8
references.pmid: 19889933
references.citation: Br J Nutr. 2011 Aug;106(4):549-56
references.pmid: 21521545
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2013 Aug;19(8):1260-7
references.pmid: 23876612
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2014 Dec 1;210(11):1763-71
references.pmid: 24951828
references.citation: Clin Immunol. 2012 Aug;144(2):98-108
references.pmid: 22710446
references.citation: J Med Virol. 2011 Aug;83(8):1476-84
references.pmid: 21618552
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 2014 Dec;52(12):4253-9
references.pmid: 25274996
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 2008 Jun;46(6):2119-21
references.pmid: 18417655
references.citation: J Med Virol. 2008 Aug;80(8):1468-76
references.pmid: 18551613
references.citation: J Virol. 2011 Jan;85(1):231-42
references.pmid: 20980508
references.citation: PLoS Med. 2008 Feb;5(2):e31
references.pmid: 18271619
references.citation: PLoS One. 2013 Jul 19;8(7):e69379
references.pmid: 23894462
references.citation: J Virol. 2007 Sep;81(18):9932-41
references.pmid: 17609280
references.citation: PLoS Pathog. 2008 Dec;4(12):e1000236
references.pmid: 19079577
references.citation: Vaccine. 2015 Jan 15;33(4):568-76
references.pmid: 25444793
references.citation: J Virol. 2010 Feb;84(4):1800-15
references.pmid: 20007270
references.citation: J Clin Virol. 2013 Mar;56(3):185-93
references.pmid: 23218993
references.citation: PLoS Pathog. 2010 Mar 26;6(3):e1000831
references.pmid: 20360972
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2008 Oct;14(10):1553-7
references.pmid: 18826818
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2010 Jan;16(1):81-7
references.pmid: 20031047
references.citation: Trends Immunol. 2014 Aug;35(8):396-402
references.pmid: 25043801
references.citation: Front Immunol. 2015 May 15;6:237
references.pmid: 26029218
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2015 Mar 15;211(6):870-8
references.pmid: 25210140
references.citation: Vaccine. 2009 Aug 20;27(38):5233-8
references.pmid: 19589399
references.citation: BMC Infect Dis. 2013 Sep 27;13:447
references.pmid: 24073740
references.citation: PLoS One. 2013 Apr 29;8(4):e63269
references.pmid: 23638188
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2008 Oct 1;198(7):994-1001
references.pmid: 18774885
references.citation: Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2009 Oct;28(10):879-84
references.pmid: 19672213
references.citation: J Virol. 2002 Dec;76(23):12335-43
references.pmid: 12414974
references.citation: J Virol. 2013 Mar;87(5):2803-13
references.pmid: 23269783
references.citation: PLoS Med. 2015 Mar 24;12(3):e1001807
references.pmid: 25803642
references.citation: Virology. 2010 Oct 10;406(1):1-11
references.pmid: 20667573
references.citation: Gastroenterology. 1999 Jul;117(1):40-8
references.pmid: 10381908
references.citation: J Gen Virol. 2014 Jul;95(Pt 7):1469-78
references.pmid: 24700099
references.citation: Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2015 Aug;22(8):923-9
references.pmid: 26041041
references.citation: CMAJ. 2013 Nov 5;185(16):1381-2
references.pmid: 24003105
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2010 Dec 1;202(11):1649-58
references.pmid: 20979455
references.citation: J Virol. 1992 Nov;66(11):6527-32
references.pmid: 1328679
references.citation: J Virol. 2008 Jun;82(11):5408-16
references.pmid: 18385231
references.citation: Vaccine. 2011 Oct 13;29(44):7670-7
references.pmid: 21839795
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 2011 Dec 8;365(23):2178-87
references.pmid: 22150036
references.citation: J Clin Virol. 2009 Jan;44(1):1-8
references.pmid: 19084472
references.citation: J Gen Virol. 2004 Jan;85(Pt 1):79-87
references.pmid: 14718622
references.citation: J Virol. 2010 Sep;84(17):8530-8
references.pmid: 20573810
references.citation: J Infect Dev Ctries. 2014 Sep 12;8(9):1201-4
references.pmid: 25212086