title: Perceptual and Brain Response to Odors Is Associated with Body Mass Index and Postprandial Total Ghrelin Reactivity to a Meal.
abstract: Animal studies have shown that olfactory sensitivity is greater when fasted than when fed. However, human research has generated inconsistent results. One possible explanation for these conflicting findings is metabolic health. Many metabolic peptides, including ghrelin, are moderated by adiposity and influence olfaction and olfactory-guided behaviors. We tested whether the effect of a meal on the perceived intensity of suprathreshold chemosensory stimuli is influenced by body mass index and/or metabolic response to a meal. We found that overweight or obese (n = 13), but not healthy weight (n = 20) subjects perceived odors, but not flavored solutions, as more intense when hungry than when sated. This effect was correlated with reduced postprandial total ghrelin suppression (n = 23) and differential brain response to odors in the cerebellum, as measured with functional magnetic resonance imaging. In contrast, it was unrelated to circulating leptin, glucose, insulin, triglycerides, or free fatty acids; or to odor pleasantness or sniffing (n = 24). These findings demonstrate that the effect of a meal on suprathreshold odor intensity perception is associated with metabolic measures such as body weight and total ghrelin reactivity, supporting endocrine influences on olfactory perception.
authors.affiliation: Yale Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06510, USA, The John B. Pierce Laboratory, 290 Congress Avenue, New Haven, CT 06519, USA, xue.sun@yale.edu.
authors.forename: Xue
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Sun
authors.affiliation: The John B. Pierce Laboratory, 290 Congress Avenue, New Haven, CT 06519, USA, Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, 300 George Street, New Haven, CT 06511, USA and.
authors.forename: Maria G
authors.initials: MG
authors.lastname: Veldhuizen
authors.affiliation: The John B. Pierce Laboratory, 290 Congress Avenue, New Haven, CT 06519, USA.
authors.forename: Amanda E
authors.initials: AE
authors.lastname: Babbs
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, 300 George Street, New Haven, CT 06511, USA and.
authors.forename: Rajita
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Sinha
authors.affiliation: Yale Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06510, USA, The John B. Pierce Laboratory, 290 Congress Avenue, New Haven, CT 06519, USA, Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, 300 George Street, New Haven, CT 06511, USA and Department of Psychology, Yale University, 2 Hillhouse Avenue, New Haven, CT 06520, USA.
authors.forename: Dana M
authors.initials: DM
authors.lastname: Small
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D015992:Body Mass Index; D002531:Cerebellum / Q000502:physiology* / Q000503:physiopathology*; D005215:Fasting; D005260:Female; D054439:Ghrelin / Q000378:metabolism*; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D009812:Odorants / Q000032:analysis; D055696:Olfactory Perception; D050177:Overweight / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000503:physiopathology; D019518:Postprandial Period; D012903:Smell; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D054439:Ghrelin
keywords: cerebellum; fMRI; metabolism; olfaction; psychophysics; sniffing
references.citation: J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007 Oct;92(10):3935-40
references.pmid: 17652221
references.citation: Sens Processes. 1977 May;1(3):227-37
references.pmid: 887952
references.citation: Cereb Cortex. 2003 Oct;13(10):1064-71
references.pmid: 12967923
references.citation: Acta Physiol Scand. 1969 May-Jun;76(1):148-58
references.pmid: 5823370
references.citation: J Neurosci. 1998 Nov 1;18(21):8990-9001
references.pmid: 9787004
references.citation: Physiol Behav. 1972 Oct;9(4):573-9
references.pmid: 4670856
references.citation: Appetite. 2012 Jun;58(3):978-81
references.pmid: 22387713
references.citation: J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004 Jun;89(6):2659-64
references.pmid: 15181038
references.citation: Genes Dev. 2003 Feb 1;17(3):313-21
references.pmid: 12569120
references.citation: Chem Senses. 2004 Feb;29(2):163-73
references.pmid: 14977813
references.citation: Am J Clin Nutr. 2014 Jun;99(6):1319-30
references.pmid: 24760977
references.citation: J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008 May;93(5):1980-7
references.pmid: 18349056
references.citation: Chem Senses. 2007 Jul;32(6):569-81
references.pmid: 17495173
references.citation: Behav Neurosci. 2004 Feb;118(1):184-90
references.pmid: 14979796
references.citation: Science. 2003 Aug 22;301(5636):1104-7
references.pmid: 12934011
references.citation: Nat Neurosci. 2010 May;13(5):635-41
references.pmid: 20348917
references.citation: Behav Brain Res. 2007 May 16;179(2):258-64
references.pmid: 17367877
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 2006 Dec;116(12):3229-39
references.pmid: 17060947
references.citation: J Comp Neurol. 1999 Sep 6;411(4):666-73
references.pmid: 10421875
references.citation: Brain Res. 1987 May;434(2):117-65
references.pmid: 3107759
references.citation: Lancet. 2001 Feb 3;357(9253):354-7
references.pmid: 11210998
references.citation: Horm Metab Res. 2004 Aug;36(8):559-63
references.pmid: 15326566
references.citation: J Exp Psychol. 1971 Oct;90(2):275-9
references.pmid: 5134332
references.citation: Am J Clin Nutr. 1959 May-Jun;7(3):280-7
references.pmid: 13649616
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2005 Jul 6;25(27):6362-71
references.pmid: 16000626
references.citation: J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005 May;90(5):2725-30
references.pmid: 15728212
references.citation: Neuroscience. 1994 Aug;61(4):925-34
references.pmid: 7838388
references.citation: Percept Mot Skills. 1994 Feb;78(1):215-26
references.pmid: 8177661
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2009 May 20;29(20):6734-51
references.pmid: 19458242
references.citation: Obesity (Silver Spring). 2009 Sep;17(9):1689-95
references.pmid: 19325538
references.citation: Int J Obes (Lond). 2007 Mar;31(3):476-80
references.pmid: 16924271
references.citation: Physiol Behav. 2014 Apr 22;129:265-71
references.pmid: 24582673
references.citation: Appetite. 2006 Jan;46(1):63-6
references.pmid: 16298017
references.citation: Behav Neurosci. 2006 Apr;120(2):393-400
references.pmid: 16719703
references.citation: Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2004 Jul;28(7):879-85
references.pmid: 15111983
references.citation: Nat Neurosci. 2003 Feb;6(2):196-202
references.pmid: 12536208
references.citation: Endocrinology. 2006 May;147(5):2306-14
references.pmid: 16484324
references.citation: J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002 Jun;87(6):2984
references.pmid: 12050284
references.citation: Neuron. 2008 Mar 13;57(5):786-97
references.pmid: 18341997
references.citation: Chem Senses. 2012 Nov;37(9):769-97
references.pmid: 22832483
references.citation: Horm Behav. 2013 Nov;64(5):812-7
references.pmid: 24100196
references.citation: Diabetes. 2001 Apr;50(4):707-9
references.pmid: 11289032
references.citation: J Neurosci Methods. 2007 Mar 15;160(2):231-45
references.pmid: 17081618
references.citation: Am J Clin Nutr. 2012 Aug;96(2):275-82
references.pmid: 22743311
references.citation: Cereb Cortex. 2013 Oct;23(10):2448-56
references.pmid: 22875864
references.citation: J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008 May;93(5):1971-9
references.pmid: 18198223
references.citation: Acta Otolaryngol. 2004 Nov;124(9):1072-7
references.pmid: 15513552
references.citation: PLoS One. 2008;3(7):e2640
references.pmid: 18612420
references.citation: Neuron. 2003 Aug 14;39(4):701-11
references.pmid: 12925283
references.citation: Perception. 1983;12(2):99-117
references.pmid: 6657430
references.citation: Addict Biol. 2013 Sep;18(5):855-62
references.pmid: 22974271
references.citation: J Neurophysiol. 2001 Dec;86(6):2986-97
references.pmid: 11731555
references.citation: Obesity (Silver Spring). 2010 May;18(5):918-25
references.pmid: 20094039
references.citation: Brain. 2001 Sep;124(Pt 9):1720-33
references.pmid: 11522575
references.citation: Physiol Behav. 1981 Jul;27(1):137-42
references.pmid: 7267792
references.citation: Int J Obes (Lond). 2007 Jun;31(6):987-95
references.pmid: 17160089
references.citation: Nat Neurosci. 2005 Jan;8(1):114-20
references.pmid: 15608635
references.citation: Nutrition. 1989 May-Jun;5(3):155-71; discussion 172
references.pmid: 2520283
references.citation: Behav Brain Res. 2007 Nov 2;183(2):123-9
references.pmid: 17624453
references.citation: Learn Mem. 1997 Jul-Aug;4(2):179-91
references.pmid: 10456062
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2015 May 20;35(20):7964-76
references.pmid: 25995480
references.citation: Chem Senses. 2012 Jan;37(1):77-86
references.pmid: 21798851
references.citation: Nature. 1966 Feb 19;209(5025):810-2
references.pmid: 5922155
references.citation: J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 1978 Feb;4(1):144-52
references.pmid: 627843
references.citation: Neuroreport. 2000 Mar 20;11(4):893-7
references.pmid: 10757540
references.citation: J Neurosci. 2011 Apr 13;31(15):5841-6
references.pmid: 21490225
references.citation: Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2003 Feb;284(2):E313-6
references.pmid: 12531744
references.citation: Am J Clin Nutr. 2004 Oct;80(4):823-31
references.pmid: 15447886
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010 Apr 6;107(14):6127-33
references.pmid: 20194732
references.citation: Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2006 Mar;64(3):255-9
references.pmid: 16487433
references.citation: Chem Senses. 2009 Nov;34(9):739-51
references.pmid: 19833660
references.citation: EJNMMI Res. 2011 Dec 16;1(1):37
references.pmid: 22214469
references.citation: Physiol Behav. 1987;41(4):353-6
references.pmid: 3432387
references.citation: Chem Senses. 2011 Jan;36(2):189-98
references.pmid: 20978137
references.citation: Gastroenterology. 1947 Oct;9(4):444-53
references.pmid: 20266698
references.citation: Physiol Behav. 2004 Aug;82(1):109-14
references.pmid: 15234598
references.citation: Cell Metab. 2008 May;7(5):400-9
references.pmid: 18460331
references.citation: Neuroscience. 1992 Dec;51(3):719-28
references.pmid: 1362601
references.citation: Neuroscience. 2009 Sep 15;162(4):1287-98
references.pmid: 19477242
references.citation: Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2002 Feb;56(2):203-6
references.pmid: 11874411
references.citation: Neuron. 2005 May 19;46(4):671-9
references.pmid: 15944134
references.citation: Physiol Behav. 2014 Sep;136:63-73
references.pmid: 24732416
references.citation: Chem Senses. 1996 Jun;21(3):323-34
references.pmid: 8670711
references.citation: PLoS One. 2012;7(7):e41276
references.pmid: 22815986
references.citation: Neuroreport. 1991 Jan;2(1):9-12
references.pmid: 1722720
references.citation: Cell. 2011 Apr 1;145(1):133-44
references.pmid: 21458672
references.citation: Rhinology. 2009 Jun;47(2):160-5
references.pmid: 19593973
references.citation: Chem Senses. 1997 Feb;22(1):39-52
references.pmid: 9056084
references.citation: Eur J Endocrinol. 2012 Nov;167(5):601-8
references.pmid: 22898499