title: Nanoparticles Based on Chitosan as Carriers for the Combined Herbicides Imazapic and Imazapyr.
abstract: The use of lower concentrations and fewer applications of herbicides is one of the prime objectives of the sustainable agriculture as it decreases the toxicity to non-targeted organisms and the risk of wider environmental contamination. In the present work, nanoparticles were developed for encapsulation of the herbicides imazapic and imazapyr. Alginate/chitosan and chitosan/tripolyphosphate nanoparticles were manufactured, and their physicochemical stability was evaluated. Determinations were made of the encapsulation efficiency and release kinetics, and the toxicity of the nanoparticles was evaluated using cytotoxicity and genotoxicity assays. The effects of herbicides and herbicide-loaded nanoparticles on soil microorganisms were studied in detail using real-time polymerase chain reactions. The nanoparticles showed an average size of 400 nm and remained stable during 30 days of storage at ambient temperature. Satisfactory encapsulation efficiencies of between 50 and 70% were achieved for both types of particles. Cytotoxicity assays showed that the encapsulated herbicides were less toxic, compared to the free compounds, and genotoxicity was decreased. Analyses of soil microbiota revealed changes in the bacteria of the soils exposed to the different treatments. Our study proves that encapsulation of the herbicides improved their mode of action and reduced their toxicity, indicating their suitability for use in future practical applications.
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Biotechnology, University of Sorocaba, Rodovia Raposo Tavares, km 92, 18023-000, Sorocaba, Brazil.|Department of Environmental Engineering, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Sorocaba, Brazil.|Federal University of São Carlos, Sorocaba campus, Rodovia João Leme dos Santos, km 110, 18052-780, Sorocaba, Brazil.
authors.forename: Cintia Rodrigues
authors.initials: CR
authors.lastname: Maruyama
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Biotechnology, University of Sorocaba, Rodovia Raposo Tavares, km 92, 18023-000, Sorocaba, Brazil.|Federal University of São Carlos, Sorocaba campus, Rodovia João Leme dos Santos, km 110, 18052-780, Sorocaba, Brazil.
authors.forename: Mariana
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Guilger
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Biotechnology, University of Sorocaba, Rodovia Raposo Tavares, km 92, 18023-000, Sorocaba, Brazil.|Department of Environmental Engineering, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Sorocaba, Brazil.|Federal University of São Carlos, Sorocaba campus, Rodovia João Leme dos Santos, km 110, 18052-780, Sorocaba, Brazil.
authors.forename: Mônica
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Pascoli
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Biotechnology, University of Sorocaba, Rodovia Raposo Tavares, km 92, 18023-000, Sorocaba, Brazil.
authors.forename: Natalia
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Bileshy-José
authors.affiliation: Institute of Environment &Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India.
authors.forename: P C
authors.initials: PC
authors.lastname: Abhilash
authors.affiliation: Department of Environmental Engineering, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Sorocaba, Brazil.
authors.forename: Leonardo Fernandes
authors.initials: LF
authors.lastname: Fraceto
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Biotechnology, University of Sorocaba, Rodovia Raposo Tavares, km 92, 18023-000, Sorocaba, Brazil.|Federal University of São Carlos, Sorocaba campus, Rodovia João Leme dos Santos, km 110, 18052-780, Sorocaba, Brazil.
authors.forename: Renata
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: de Lima
mesh_terms: D048271:Chitosan / Q000737:chemistry; D020552:Comet Assay; D004337:Drug Carriers / Q000737:chemistry; D004339:Drug Compounding; D065546:Drug Liberation; D004355:Drug Stability; D006540:Herbicides / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000737:chemistry / Q000633:toxicity; D007093:Imidazoles / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000737:chemistry / Q000633:toxicity; D007700:Kinetics; D064307:Microbiota / Q000187:drug effects; D053758:Nanoparticles / Q000737:chemistry; D009525:Niacin / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000031:analogs & derivatives* / Q000737:chemistry / Q000633:toxicity; D009539:Nicotinic Acids / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000737:chemistry / Q000633:toxicity; D012988:Soil Microbiology
chemical_list: D004337:Drug Carriers; D006540:Herbicides; D007093:Imidazoles; D009539:Nicotinic Acids; D009525:Niacin; C076656:imazapyr; D048271:Chitosan; C481028:imazapic
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