title: Differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells for cartilage tissue engineering: Individual and synergetic effects of three-dimensional environment and mechanical loading.
abstract: Chondrogenesis of dedifferentiated chondrocytes and mesenchymal stem cells is influenced not only by soluble molecules like growth factors, but also by the cell environment itself. The latter is achieved through both mechanical cues - which act as stimulation factor and influences nutrient transport - and adhesion to extracellular matrix cues - which determine cell shape. Although the effects of soluble molecules and cell environment have been intensively addressed, few observations and conclusions about the interaction between the two have been achieved. In this work, we review the state of the art on the single effects between mechanical and biochemical cues, as well as on the combination of the two. Furthermore, we provide a discussion on the techniques currently used to determine the mechanical properties of materials and tissues generated in vitro, their limitations and the future research needs to properly address the identified problems.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The importance of biomechanical cues in chondrogenesis is well known. This paper reviews the existing literature on the effect of mechanical stimulation on chondrogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells in order to regenerate hyaline cartilage. Contradictory results found with respect to the effect of different modes of external loading can be explained by the different properties of the scaffolding system that holds the cells, which determine cell adhesion and morphology and spatial distribution of cells, as well as the stress transmission to the cells. Thus, this review seeks to provide an insight into the interplay between external loading program and scaffold properties during chondrogenic differentiation. The review of the literature reveals an important gap in the knowledge in this field and encourages new experimental studies. The main issue is that in each of the few cases in which the interplay is investigated, just two groups of scaffolds are compared, leaving intermediate adhesion conditions out of study. The authors propose broader studies implementing new high-throughput techniques for mechanical characterization of tissue engineering constructs and the inclusion of fatigue analysis as support methodology to more exhaustive mechanical characterization.
authors.affiliation: Center/Departament of Physics, Universidade do Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal; Center for Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain. Electronic address: ex2323@fisica.uminho.pt.
authors.forename: J A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Panadero
authors.affiliation: Center/Departament of Physics, Universidade do Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal; BCMaterials, Parque Científico y Tecnológico de Bizkaia, 48160-Derio, Spain.
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Lanceros-Mendez
authors.affiliation: Center for Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain; Networking Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Valencia, Spain.
authors.forename: J L Gomez
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Ribelles
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D002356:Cartilage / Q000502:physiology*; D018929:Cell Culture Techniques / Q000379:methods*; D002454:Cell Differentiation; D006801:Humans; D055595:Mechanical Phenomena; D059630:Mesenchymal Stem Cells / Q000166:cytology*; D023822:Tissue Engineering / Q000379:methods*
keywords: Cell adhesion; Chondrogenic differentiation; Mechanical loading; Mechanotransduction; Mesenchymal stem cells