title: Comparing position and orientation accuracy of different electromagnetic sensors for tracking during interventions.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To compare the position and orientation accuracy between using one 6-degree of freedom (DOF) electromagnetic (EM) sensor, or the position information of three 5DOF sensors within the scope of tumor tracking.
  
  
  METHODS
  The position accuracy of Northern Digital Inc Aurora 5DOF and 6DOF sensors was determined for a table-top field generator (TTFG) up to a distance of 52 cm. For each sensor 716 positions were measured for 10 s at 15 Hz. Orientation accuracy was determined for each of the orthogonal axis at the TTFG distances of 17, 27, 37 and 47 cm. For the 6DOF sensors, orientation was determined for sensors in-line with the orientation axis, and perpendicular. 5DOF orientation accuracy was determined for a theoretical 4 cm tumor. An optical tracking system was used as reference.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Position RMSE and jitter were comparable between the sensors and increasing with distance. Jitter was within 0.1 cm SD within 45 cm distance to the TTFG. Position RMSE was approximately 0.1 cm up to 32 cm distance, increasing to 0.4 cm at 52 cm distance. Orientation accuracy of the 6DOF sensor was within 1[Formula: see text], except when the sensor was in-line with the rotation axis perpendicular to the TTFG plane (4[Formula: see text] errors at 47 cm). Orientation accuracy using 5DOF positions was within 1[Formula: see text] up to 37 cm and 2[Formula: see text] at 47 cm.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The position and orientation accuracy of a 6DOF sensor was comparable with a sensor configuration consisting of three 5DOF sensors. To achieve tracking accuracy within 1 mm and 1[Formula: see text], the distance to the TTFG should be limited to approximately 30 cm.
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, The Netherlands Cancer Institute - Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. j.nijkamp@nki.nl.
authors.forename: Jasper
authors.identifier: http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7523-5881
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Nijkamp
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, The Netherlands Cancer Institute - Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Bram
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Schermers
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, The Netherlands Cancer Institute - Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Sander
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Schmitz
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, The Netherlands Cancer Institute - Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Sofieke
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: de Jonge
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, The Netherlands Cancer Institute - Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Koert
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Kuhlmann
authors.affiliation: Department of Robotics and Mechatronics, MIRA Institute for Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Ferdinand
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: van der Heijden
authors.affiliation: Department of Radiation Oncology, Netherlands Cancer Institute - Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Jan-Jakob
authors.initials: JJ
authors.lastname: Sonke
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, The Netherlands Cancer Institute - Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Theo
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Ruers
mesh_terms: D002138:Calibration; D055590:Electromagnetic Phenomena; D006801:Humans; D000072458:Orientation, Spatial; D012984:Software; D025321:Surgery, Computer-Assisted / Q000295:instrumentation*
keywords: Electromagnetic tracking; Orientation accuracy; Position accuracy; Tumor tracking
references.citation: Surg Endosc. 2016 Feb;30(2):495-503
references.pmid: 26099616
references.citation: IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. 2014 Oct;61(10):2527-37
references.pmid: 24833412
references.citation: J Surg Oncol. 2010 Apr 1;101(5):436-41
references.pmid: 20191603
references.citation: J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci. 2010 Sep;17(5):629-36
references.pmid: 19798463
references.citation: Hepatobiliary Surg Nutr. 2014 Apr;3(2):73-81
references.pmid: 24812598
references.citation: Cochlear Implants Int. 2009;10 Suppl 1:14-8
references.pmid: 19142886
references.citation: Med Phys. 2005 Jul;32(7):2371-9
references.pmid: 16121595
references.citation: Minim Invasive Ther Allied Technol. 2008;17(1):17-33
references.pmid: 18270874
references.citation: IEEE Trans Med Imaging. 2014 Aug;33(8):1702-25
references.pmid: 24816547
references.citation: Curr Surg Rep. 2014 Feb 22;2:47
references.pmid: 24672747
references.citation: Dis Colon Rectum. 2010 Jan;53(1):53-6
references.pmid: 20010351
references.citation: Med Phys. 2012 Jun;39(6):3424-34
references.pmid: 22755722
references.citation: Comput Aided Surg. 2010;15(1-3):1-12
references.pmid: 20233129
references.citation: Neurosurg Rev. 2003 May;26(2):73-99; discussion 100-1
references.pmid: 12962294
references.citation: Clin Cancer Res. 2007 Nov 15;13(22 Pt 1):6617-23
references.pmid: 18006762
references.citation: Phys Med Biol. 2006 May 21;51(10):N205-10
references.pmid: 16675856
references.citation: Comput Aided Surg. 2006 May;11(3):127-36
references.pmid: 16829506