title: Phylogeography and evolutionary patterns in Sporothrix spanning more than 14 000 human and animal case reports.
abstract: Pathology to vertebrate hosts has emerged repeatedly in the order Ophiostomatales. Occasional infections have been observed in Sporothrix mexicana at a low level of virulence, while the main pathogenic species cluster in a derived clade around S. schenckii s.str. In this paper, phylogeny and epidemiology of the members of this clade were investigated for 99 clinical and 36 environmental strains using four genetic loci, viz. rDNA ITS and partial CAL, TEF1, and TEF3; data are compared with amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) genotyping. The four main species of the pathogenic clade were recognised. The species proved to show high degrees of endemicity, which enabled interpretation of literature data where live material or genetic information is lacking. The clade of four species comprised nine subclusters, which often had limited geographic distribution and were separate from each other in all partitions, suggesting low degrees of interbreeding between populations. In contrast, S. globosa exhibited consistent global distribution of identical AFLP types, suggesting another type of dispersal. Sporothrix brasiliensis is known to be involved in an expanding zoonosis and transmitted by cats, whereas S. globosa infections originated from putrid plant material, causing a sapronosis. Sporothrix schenckii s.str., the most variable species within the clade, also had a plant origin, with ecological similarities to that of S. globosa. A hypothesis was put forward that highly specific conditions in the plant material are required to promote the growth of Sporothrix. Fermented, self-heated plant debris may stimulate the thermodependent yeast-like invasive form of the fungus, which facilitates repeated infection of mammals.
authors.affiliation: Department of Dermatology, Tianjin Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine Affiliated Hospital, Tianjin, China;; CBS-KNAW Fungal Biodiversity Centre, P.O. Box 85167, 3508 AD Utrecht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Y
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Zhang
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Canisius Wilhelmina Hospital, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: F
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Hagen
authors.affiliation: CBS-KNAW Fungal Biodiversity Centre, P.O. Box 85167, 3508 AD Utrecht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: B
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Stielow
authors.affiliation: Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Cellular Biology Division, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
authors.forename: A M
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Rodrigues
authors.affiliation: CBS-KNAW Fungal Biodiversity Centre, P.O. Box 85167, 3508 AD Utrecht, The Netherlands.; Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand.
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Samerpitak
authors.affiliation: Department of Dermatology, First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.
authors.forename: X
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Zhou
authors.affiliation: Third Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.
authors.forename: P
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Feng
authors.affiliation: CBS-KNAW Fungal Biodiversity Centre, P.O. Box 85167, 3508 AD Utrecht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: L
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Yang
authors.affiliation: CBS-KNAW Fungal Biodiversity Centre, P.O. Box 85167, 3508 AD Utrecht, The Netherlands.; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Molecular Medical Mycology, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China.
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Chen
authors.affiliation: Shanghai Key Laboratory of Molecular Medical Mycology, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China.
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Deng
authors.affiliation: Department of Dermatology and Venereology, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China.
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Li
authors.affiliation: Shanghai Key Laboratory of Molecular Medical Mycology, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China.
authors.forename: W
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Liao
authors.affiliation: Department of Dermatology, Peking University First Hospital, Research Center for Medical Mycology, Beijing, China.
authors.forename: R
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Li
authors.affiliation: Department of Dermatology and Venereology, Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China.
authors.forename: F
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Li
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Canisius Wilhelmina Hospital, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.; Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: J F
authors.initials: JF
authors.lastname: Meis
authors.affiliation: Unitat de Microbiologia, Facultat de Medicina i Ciencies de la Salut, IISPV Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Reus, Tarragona, Spain.
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Guarro
authors.affiliation: Department of Cell Biology, Biological Sciences Institute, University of Brasília, Brasília, Distrito Federal, Brazil.
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Teixeira
authors.affiliation: Biological Sciences Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
authors.forename: H S
authors.initials: HS
authors.lastname: Al-Zahrani
authors.affiliation: Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Cellular Biology Division, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
authors.forename: Z
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Pires de Camargo
authors.affiliation: Department of Dermatology, Tianjin Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine Affiliated Hospital, Tianjin, China;
authors.forename: L
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Zhang
authors.affiliation: CBS-KNAW Fungal Biodiversity Centre, P.O. Box 85167, 3508 AD Utrecht, The Netherlands.; Third Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.; Department of Dermatology, Peking University First Hospital, Research Center for Medical Mycology, Beijing, China.; Department of Cell Biology, Biological Sciences Institute, University of Brasília, Brasília, Distrito Federal, Brazil.; Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Basic Biology, University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil.
authors.forename: G S
authors.initials: GS
authors.lastname: de Hoog
keywords: Sporothrix; epidemiology; historical biogeography; phylogeny; sapronosis; sporotrichosis; transmission routes; yeast conversion; zoonosis
references.citation: Cad Saude Publica. 2012 Oct;28(10):1867-80
references.pmid: 23090167
references.citation: Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 1989 Sep-Oct;31(5):351-8
references.pmid: 2629064
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2007 Aug;13(8):1228-31
references.pmid: 17953099
references.citation: JAMA. 1978 Jul 21;240(3):232-5
references.pmid: 566336
references.citation: Eukaryot Cell. 2015 Feb;14(2):158-69
references.pmid: 25480940
references.citation: Int J Dermatol. 2011 May;50(5):522-9
references.pmid: 21506965
references.citation: J Am Acad Dermatol. 2005 Mar;52(3 Pt 1):451-9
references.pmid: 15761423
references.citation: Indian J Med Res. 1994 Aug;100:62-5
references.pmid: 7927557
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 1991 Jun;29(6):1106-13
references.pmid: 1864926
references.citation: J Med Microbiol. 2009 Mar;58(Pt 3):381-5
references.pmid: 19208892
references.citation: Pediatr Dermatol. 2009 Sep-Oct;26(5):563-5
references.pmid: 19840311
references.citation: Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2014 Apr;78(4):383-7
references.pmid: 24525143
references.citation: Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1999 Jan-Feb;93(1):41-5
references.pmid: 10492787
references.citation: Clin Rheumatol. 2006 Nov;25(6):926-8
references.pmid: 16333559
references.citation: Int J Dermatol. 2009 Nov;48(11):1198-200
references.pmid: 20064175
references.citation: Rev Panam Salud Publica. 2010 Jun;27(6):455-60
references.pmid: 20721446
references.citation: Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek. 1992 May;61(4):289-316
references.pmid: 1497334
references.citation: J Infect Dev Ctries. 2011 Aug 12;5(8):603-8
references.pmid: 21841306
references.citation: Rev Iberoam Micol. 2007 Jun;24(2):161-3
references.pmid: 17604439
references.citation: Syst Biol. 2012 May;61(3):539-42
references.pmid: 22357727
references.citation: Clin Infect Dis. 2000 Jan;30(1):65-70
references.pmid: 10619735
references.citation: Clin Exp Dermatol. 2006 May;31(3):479-81
references.pmid: 16681620
references.citation: Mol Biol Evol. 2013 Apr;30(4):772-80
references.pmid: 23329690
references.citation: Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2008 Apr;21(2):129-33
references.pmid: 18317034
references.citation: Can Vet J. 2007 Apr;48(4):411-4
references.pmid: 17494369
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008 Feb;52(2):732-4
references.pmid: 18039919
references.citation: PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013 Jun 20;7(6):e2281
references.pmid: 23818999
references.citation: Rev Iberoam Micol. 2009 Sep 30;26(3):218-22
references.pmid: 19635441
references.citation: Int J Dermatol. 2007 Feb;46(2):177-9
references.pmid: 17269971
references.citation: Dermatologica. 1986;172(4):209-13
references.pmid: 3709907
references.citation: Microbes Infect. 2003 Sep;5(11):933-8
references.pmid: 12941384
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 1997 Aug;176(2):499-504
references.pmid: 9237718
references.citation: Microbiol Rev. 1980 Dec;44(4):683-721
references.pmid: 7010114
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2012 Apr 17;109(16):6241-6
references.pmid: 22454494
references.citation: Int J Dermatol. 2003 Sep;42(9):677-81
references.pmid: 12956676
references.citation: Sabouraudia. 1978 Sep;16(3):185-98
references.pmid: 360441
references.citation: Sabouraudia. 1977 Jul;15(2):167-70
references.pmid: 333622
references.citation: An Bras Dermatol. 2011 Sep-Oct;86(5):995-8
references.pmid: 22147042
references.citation: Int J Dermatol. 2008 Apr;47(4):367-71
references.pmid: 18377600
references.citation: Clin Infect Dis. 1998 Jun;26(6):1403-6
references.pmid: 9636870
references.citation: Int J Dermatol. 2012 Jun;51(6):702-8
references.pmid: 22607289
references.citation: Clin Microbiol Rev. 2011 Oct;24(4):633-54
references.pmid: 21976602
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2013 Oct;19(10):1670-3
references.pmid: 24048006
references.citation: Epidemiol Infect. 2008 Sep;136(9):1192-6
references.pmid: 18028580
references.citation: Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2014 Apr;109(2):262-4
references.pmid: 24810176
references.citation: Med J Aust. 2012 May 21;196(9):588-90
references.pmid: 22621152
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 2002 Aug;40(8):3004-11
references.pmid: 12149366
references.citation: Med Mycol. 2014 Jan;52(1):56-64
references.pmid: 23964828
references.citation: Mykosen. 1969 Nov 1;12(11):633-44
references.pmid: 4920813
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2005 Sep;11(9):1496-7
references.pmid: 16673522
references.citation: MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1988 Oct 28;37(42):652-3
references.pmid: 2971870
references.citation: Mycopathologia. 2012 Apr;173(4):265-73
references.pmid: 22143899
references.citation: Mycoses. 2007 Nov;50(6):496-501
references.pmid: 17944713
references.citation: Gac Med Mex. 2001 Mar-Apr;137(2):111-6
references.pmid: 11381797
references.citation: Indian J Pathol Microbiol. 1998 Oct;41(4):461-3
references.pmid: 9866909
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2011 Oct;17(10):1975-6
references.pmid: 22000393
references.citation: Mycopathologia. 2008 Sep;166(3):159-62
references.pmid: 18421569
references.citation: Mycopathologia. 2007 Feb;163(2):75-9
references.pmid: 17294354
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 1965 May 20;272:1054-8
references.pmid: 14281542
references.citation: PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2012;6(6):e1673
references.pmid: 22720100
references.citation: Med Mycol. 2012 Feb;50(2):170-8
references.pmid: 21859385
references.citation: Arch Intern Med. 1997 Sep 8;157(16):1885-7
references.pmid: 9290549
references.citation: Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2008 Mar;27(3):246-50
references.pmid: 18277928
references.citation: Sabouraudia. 1969 Feb;7(1):38-45
references.pmid: 5375340
references.citation: Med Mycol. 2013 May;51(4):405-12
references.pmid: 22989196
references.citation: J Exp Med. 1900 Oct 1;5(1):77-89
references.pmid: 19866937
references.citation: Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2014 May-Jun;47(3):392-3
references.pmid: 25075494
references.citation: Virulence. 2013 Apr 1;4(3):241-9
references.pmid: 23324498
references.citation: Mycopathologia. 2010 May;169(5):351-8
references.pmid: 20119849
references.citation: Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2010 Sep-Oct;43(5):523-5
references.pmid: 21085862
references.citation: Int J Low Extrem Wounds. 2012 Sep;11(3):184-6
references.pmid: 22885611
references.citation: Mycopathologia. 2012 Apr;173(4):245-9
references.pmid: 22147275
references.citation: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2004 May 15;224(10):1623-9
references.pmid: 15154732
references.citation: Int J Dermatol. 2013 Aug;52(8):974-80
references.pmid: 23621481
references.citation: Nihon Ishinkin Gakkai Zasshi. 2009;50(2):101-8
references.pmid: 19430185
references.citation: C R Acad Sci Hebd Seances Acad Sci D. 1968 Sep 2;267(10):974-6
references.pmid: 4973090
references.citation: Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2003 Jul;67(7):819-23
references.pmid: 12791461
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 2007 Oct;45(10):3198-206
references.pmid: 17687013
references.citation: Mycologia. 2003 May-Jun;95(3):434-41
references.pmid: 21156632
references.citation: J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2013 Mar;27(3):313-8
references.pmid: 22176524
references.citation: Int J Dermatol. 2004 Nov;43(11):808-10
references.pmid: 15533061
references.citation: Emerg Microbes Infect. 2014 May;3(5):e32
references.pmid: 26038739
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 2006 Sep;44(9):3251-6
references.pmid: 16954256
references.citation: Clin Microbiol Infect. 2009 Jul;15(7):651-5
references.pmid: 19624508
references.citation: Ann Dermatol Venereol. 2009 Mar;136(3):273-5
references.pmid: 19328312
references.citation: Rev Iberoam Micol. 2010 Jun 30;27(2):75-9
references.pmid: 20346295
references.citation: Australas J Dermatol. 1998 Feb;39(1):34-7
references.pmid: 9529687
references.citation: Clin Infect Dis. 2004 Feb 15;38(4):529-35
references.pmid: 14765346
references.citation: Mycologia. 2010 Sep-Oct;102(5):1193-203
references.pmid: 20943519
references.citation: Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2012 Mar;86(3):477-80
references.pmid: 22403321
references.citation: Vet Rec. 1990 Nov 10;127(19):480
references.pmid: 2270639
references.citation: Vet Dermatol. 2009 Aug;20(4):249-59
references.pmid: 19659536
references.citation: Gac Med Mex. 2006 Sep-Oct;142(5):377-80
references.pmid: 17128816
references.citation: Med Mycol Case Rep. 2013 Apr 10;2:88-90
references.pmid: 24432225
references.citation: Dermatol Online J. 2011 Jun 15;17(6):2
references.pmid: 21696682
references.citation: Mycopathologia. 1997;137(3):137-43
references.pmid: 9368407
references.citation: Cornea. 2005 May;24(4):491-3
references.pmid: 15829813
references.citation: J Med Vet Mycol. 1992;30(2):169-71
references.pmid: 1588467
references.citation: Med Mycol. 2013 Jul;51(5):534-44
references.pmid: 23286352
references.citation: Clin Microbiol Rev. 1999 Jul;12(3):454-500
references.pmid: 10398676
references.citation: Mycopathologia. 2013 Aug;176(1-2):67-74
references.pmid: 23771481
references.citation: Syst Biol. 2008 Oct;57(5):758-71
references.pmid: 18853362
references.citation: PLoS One. 2013 Oct 07;8(10):e75656
references.pmid: 24116065
references.citation: Curr Opin Microbiol. 2007 Aug;10(4):314-9
references.pmid: 17719267
references.citation: PLoS One. 2014 Jan 23;9(1):e86819
references.pmid: 24466257
references.citation: Skinmed. 2007 May-Jun;6(3):139-41
references.pmid: 17483658
references.citation: Mycopathologia. 2014 Apr;177(3-4):199-206
references.pmid: 24577793
references.citation: Rev Peru Med Exp Salud Publica. 2011 Jul-Sep;28(3):508-12
references.pmid: 22086633
references.citation: BMC Infect Dis. 2014 Apr 23;14:219
references.pmid: 24755107
references.citation: Rev Infect Dis. 1987 Mar-Apr;9(2):369-75
references.pmid: 3296101
references.citation: Med J Aust. 1999 Dec 6-20;171(11-12):685-6
references.pmid: 10721374
references.citation: Cutis. 2002 Jun;69(6):439-42
references.pmid: 12078845
references.citation: Int J Dermatol. 1994 Jan;33(1):38-41
references.pmid: 8112938
references.citation: Pediatr Dermatol. 2007 Jul-Aug;24(4):369-72
references.pmid: 17845157
references.citation: Eur J Epidemiol. 1989 Jun;5(2):173-7
references.pmid: 2670603
references.citation: Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2001 Aug;96(6):777-9
references.pmid: 11562701
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 1992 Sep;30(9):2492-4
references.pmid: 1401023