title: A novel, comprehensive, and reproducible porcine model for determining the timing of bruises in forensic pathology.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Calculating the timing of bruises is crucial in forensic pathology but is a challenging discipline in both human and veterinary medicine. A mechanical device for inflicting bruises in pigs was developed and validated, and the pathological reactions in the bruises were studied over time in order to identify gross and histological parameters that may be useful in determining the age of a bruise.
  
  
  METHODS
  The mechanical device was able to apply a single reproducible stroke with a plastic tube that was equivalent to being struck by a man. In each of 10 anesthetized pigs, four strokes that resulted in bruises were inflicted on the back. In addition, 2 control pigs were included in the study. The pigs were euthanized consecutively from 1 to 10 h after the infliction of bruises. Following gross evaluation, skin, and muscle tissues were sampled for histology.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Grossly, the bruises appeared uniform and identical to the tramline bruises seen in humans and pigs subjected to blunt trauma. Histologically, the number of neutrophils in the subcutis, the number of macrophages in the muscle tissue, and the localization of neutrophils and macrophages in muscle tissue showed a time-dependent response. Combining these parameters, bruises could be grouped as being either less than 4 h old or between 4 and 10 h of age. Gross lesions and changes in the epidermis and dermis were inconclusive with respect to time determination.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The model was reproducible and resembled forensic cases of bruises in pigs and humans. Therefore, the histological parameters are suitable for age determination of bruises in pigs and likely also in humans.
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Ridebanevej 3, DK-1870, Frederiksberg, Denmark. krisb@sund.ku.dk.
authors.forename: Kristiane
authors.identifier: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0087-6649
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Barington
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Ridebanevej 3, DK-1870, Frederiksberg, Denmark.
authors.forename: Henrik Elvang
authors.initials: HE
authors.lastname: Jensen
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D003288:Contusions / Q000473:pathology*; D049429:Forensic Pathology; D008264:Macrophages / Q000473:pathology; D023421:Models, Animal; D018482:Muscle, Skeletal / Q000473:pathology*; D009504:Neutrophils / Q000473:pathology; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012867:Skin / Q000293:injuries / Q000473:pathology*; D013552:Swine; D013997:Time Factors
keywords: Age estimation; Blunt trauma; Bruises; Forensic pathology; Model; Pig
references.citation: Lasers Surg Med. 2007 Jun;39(5):403-13
references.pmid: 17523178
references.citation: Med Sci Law. 2012 Jan;52(1):6-11
references.pmid: 22041123
references.citation: Int J Legal Med. 2005 Jan;119(1):16-21
references.pmid: 15205965
references.citation: J Clin Pathol. 2004 Apr;57(4):355-9
references.pmid: 15047735
references.citation: Forensic Sci Int. 2006 May 10;158(2-3):104-7
references.pmid: 15996845
references.citation: Forensic Sci Int. 1986 Jul 31;31(4):225-39
references.pmid: 3744215
references.citation: Forensic Sci Med Pathol. 2011 Sep;7(3):253-6
references.pmid: 21258881
references.citation: Aust Vet J. 1978 Nov;54(11):525-7
references.pmid: 753212
references.citation: Vet Rec. 2013 Nov 30;173(21):526
references.pmid: 24197436
references.citation: Forensic Sci Med Pathol. 2015 Dec;11(4):482-7
references.pmid: 25772118
references.citation: J Clin Pathol. 2001 May;54(5):348-55
references.pmid: 11328832
references.citation: Acta Histochem. 2001 Apr;103(2):139-49
references.pmid: 11368095
references.citation: Int J Legal Med. 1994;107(2):60-8
references.pmid: 7529545
references.citation: Med Sci Law. 2011 Jul;51(3):170-6
references.pmid: 21905574
references.citation: Forensic Sci Int. 2004 Sep 10;144(2-3):221-31
references.pmid: 15364394
references.citation: Forensic Sci Med Pathol. 2008;4(3):187-92
references.pmid: 19291460
references.citation: Forensic Sci Med Pathol. 2010 Dec;6(4):275-81
references.pmid: 20563889
references.citation: Forensic Sci Med Pathol. 2013 Sep;9(3):358-62
references.pmid: 23839664
references.citation: Forensic Sci Med Pathol. 2007 Dec;3(4):241-51
references.pmid: 25869263
references.citation: Vet Pathol. 2012 Mar;49(2):344-56
references.pmid: 21441112
references.citation: Arch Dis Child. 1996 Jan;74(1):53-5
references.pmid: 8660049
references.citation: Forensic Sci Med Pathol. 2013 Dec;9(4):528-33
references.pmid: 24045877
references.citation: J Forensic Leg Med. 2010 Apr;17(3):143-9
references.pmid: 20211455
references.citation: Int J Legal Med. 2010 Jan;124(1):27-33
references.pmid: 19184079
references.citation: J Biophotonics. 2011 Oct;4(10):759-67
references.pmid: 21595043
references.citation: J Forensic Sci. 2011 Jul;56(4):925-9
references.pmid: 21434923
references.citation: NMR Biomed. 2014 Nov;27(11):1397-402
references.pmid: 25208978
references.citation: Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 2005 Jun;26(2):186-8
references.pmid: 15894857