title: Architectural adaptations of muscle to training and injury: a narrative review outlining the contributions by fascicle length, pennation angle and muscle thickness.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The architectural characteristics of muscle (fascicle length, pennation angle muscle thickness) respond to varying forms of stimuli (eg, training, immobilisation and injury). Architectural changes following injury are thought to occur in response to the restricted range of motion experienced during rehabilitation and the associated neuromuscular inhibition. However, it is unknown if these differences exist prior to injury, and had a role in injury occuring (prospectively), or if they occur in response to the incident itself (retrospectively). Considering that the structure of a muscle will influence how it functions, it is of interest to understand how these architectural variations may alter how a muscle acts with reference to the force-length and force-velocity relationships.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  Our narrative review provides an overview of muscle architectural adaptations to training and injury. Specifically, we (1) describe the methods used to measure muscle architecture; (2) detail the impact that architectural alterations following training interventions, immobilisation and injury have on force production and (3) present a hypothesis on how neuromuscular inhibition could cause maladaptations to muscle architecture following injury.
authors.affiliation: School of Exercise Science, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
authors.forename: Ryan G
authors.initials: RG
authors.lastname: Timmins
authors.affiliation: School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences and Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
authors.forename: Anthony J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Shield
authors.affiliation: School of Health, Sport and Professional Practice, University of South Wales, Pontypridd, Wales, UK.
authors.forename: Morgan D
authors.initials: MD
authors.lastname: Williams
authors.affiliation: School of Exercise Science, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
authors.forename: Christian
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Lorenzen
authors.affiliation: School of Exercise Science, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
authors.forename: David A
authors.initials: DA
authors.lastname: Opar
keywords: Injury; Muscle