title: Did the crew of the submarine H.L. Hunley suffocate?
abstract: On the evening of February 17th, 1864, the Confederate submarine H.L. Hunley attacked the Union ship USS Housatonic outside Charleston, South Carolina and became the first submarine in history to successfully sink an enemy ship in combat. One hypothesis for the sinking of the Confederate submarine H.L. Hunley is that the crew, in the enclosed vessel, suffered a lack of oxygen and suffocated. This study estimates the effects of hypoxia and hypercapnia on the crew based on submarine gas volume and crew breathing dynamics. The calculations show the crew of the Hunley had a minimum of 10 min between the onset of uncomfortable hypercapnia symptoms and danger of loss of consciousness from hypoxia. Based on this result and the location of the crew when discovered, hypoxia and hypercapnia do not explain the sinking of the world's first successful combat submarine.
authors.affiliation: Duke University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, 1427 CIEMAS, 101 Science Drive, Box 90281, Durham, NC 27705; Naval Surface Warfare Center Panama City Division, Code E15 Underwater Systems Development and Acquisition, 110 Vernon Dr, Panama City, FL 32407. Electronic address: Rachel.lance@duke.edu.
authors.forename: Rachel M
authors.initials: RM
authors.lastname: Lance
authors.affiliation: Duke University Medical Center, Department of Anesthesiology, DUMC 3094, Durham, NC 27710.
authors.forename: Richard E
authors.initials: RE
authors.lastname: Moon
authors.affiliation: Independent Researcher, www.VernianEra.com.
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Crisafulli
authors.affiliation: Duke University, Department of Biomedical Engineering, 1427 CIEMAS, 101 Science Drive, Box 90281, Durham, NC 27705.
authors.forename: Cameron R
authors.initials: CR
authors.lastname: Bass
mesh_terms: D049672:History, 19th Century; D006801:Humans; D006935:Hypercapnia; D000860:Hypoxia; D008297:Male; D008889:Military Personnel / Q000266:history*; D008954:Models, Biological; D010100:Oxygen / Q000032:analysis; D010101:Oxygen Consumption; D013366:Submarine Medicine; D014481:United States; D014857:Warfare
chemical_list: D010100:Oxygen
keywords: Hunley; Hypercapnia; Hypoxia; Sinking; Submarine