title: The epidemic of pre-injury oral antiplatelet and anticoagulant use.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  As the population ages, an increasing number of trauma patients are taking antiplatelet and anticoagulant medications (ACAP) prior to their injuries. These medications increase their risk of hemorrhagic complications, particularly intracerebral hemorrhage. Clopidogrel and warfarin are common and their mechanisms well understood, but optimal reversal methods continue to evolve. The novel direct thrombin and factor Xa inhibitors are less well described and do not have existing antidotes.
  
  
  METHODS
  This article reviews the relevant literature on traumatic outcomes with use of ACAP medications, as well as data on ideal reversal strategies. Suggested algorithms are introduced, and future research directions discussed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Although they are beneficial in preventing clot formation, once bleeding occurs ACAP medications contribute to increased morbidity and mortality, particularly in geriatric patient populations. The efficacy of clopidogrel reversal with platelet transfusions and DDAVP remains unclear. Warfarin use is best treated with the algorithm-driven use of plasma, vitamin K, prothrombin complex concentrates (PCCs) and possibly recombinant factor VIIa depending upon specific patient and injury factors. Optimal treatment for direct thrombin and factor Xa inhibitors has yet to be developed, but PCCs are promising for rivaroxaban and apixaban while dabigatran is best treated with medication cessation and the possible addition of activated PCCs or hemodialysis.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  New developments in reversal of the ACAP medications are promising, particularly PCCs for warfarin and the factor Xa inhibitors. Function assays and clear antidotes are needed for the thrombin and Xa inhibitors. Research on outcomes and appropriate treatments is actively ongoing.
authors.affiliation: Division of Trauma, Surgical Critical Care and Burns, Department of Surgery, University of California San Diego, 200 West Arbor Drive, Mail Code 8896, San Diego, CA, 92103, USA.
authors.forename: A E
authors.initials: AE
authors.lastname: Berndtson
authors.affiliation: Division of Trauma, Surgical Critical Care and Burns, Department of Surgery, University of California San Diego, 200 West Arbor Drive, Mail Code 8896, San Diego, CA, 92103, USA. rcoimbra@ucsd.edu.
authors.forename: R
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Coimbra
keywords: Anticoagulation; Antiplatelet; Coagulopathy; Intracranial hemorrhage; Prothrombin complex concentrate
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