title: Noninvasive brain stimulation for addiction medicine: From monitoring to modulation.
abstract: Addiction is a chronic relapsing brain disease with significant economical and medical burden on the societies but with limited effectiveness in the available treatment options. Better understanding of the chemical, neuronal, regional, and network alterations of the brain due to drug abuse can ultimately lead to tailoring individualized and more effective interventions. To this end, employing new assessment and intervention procedures seems crucial. Noninvasive brain stimulation (NIBS) techniques including transcranial electrical and magnetic stimulations (tES and TMS) have provided promising opportunities for the addiction medicine in two main domains: (1) providing new insights into neurochemical and neural circuit changes in the human brain cortex and (2) understanding the role of different brain regions by using NIBS and modulating cognitive functions, such as drug craving, risky decision making, inhibitory control and executive functions to obtain specific treatment outcomes. In spite of preliminary positive results, there are several open questions, which need to be addressed before routine clinical utilization of NIBS techniques in addiction to medicine, such as how to account for interindividual differences, define optimal cognitive and neural targets, optimize stimulation protocols, and integrate NIBS with other therapeutic methods. Therefore, in this chapter we revise the available literature on the use of NIBS (TMS and tES) in the diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic aspects of the addiction medicine.
authors.affiliation: Neurocognitive Laboratory, Iranian National Center for Addiction Studies (INCAS), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
authors.forename: Fatemeh
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Yavari
authors.affiliation: Neurocognitive Laboratory, Iranian National Center for Addiction Studies (INCAS), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Translational Neuroscience Program, Institute for Cognitive Science Studies (ICSS), Tehran, Iran; Neuroimaging and Analysis Group, Research Center for Molecular and Cellular Imaging (RCMCI), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
authors.forename: Alireza
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Shahbabaie
authors.affiliation: Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Laboratory of Neuromodulation, Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital and Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Neuropsychophysiology Laboratory, CIPsi, School of Psychology (EPsi), University of Minho, Braga, Portugal.
authors.forename: Jorge
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Leite
authors.affiliation: Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Laboratory of Neuromodulation, Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital and Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Neuropsychophysiology Laboratory, CIPsi, School of Psychology (EPsi), University of Minho, Braga, Portugal.
authors.forename: Sandra
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Carvalho
authors.affiliation: Neurocognitive Laboratory, Iranian National Center for Addiction Studies (INCAS), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Translational Neuroscience Program, Institute for Cognitive Science Studies (ICSS), Tehran, Iran; Neuroimaging and Analysis Group, Research Center for Molecular and Cellular Imaging (RCMCI), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran. Electronic address: h_ekhtiari@razi.tums.ac.ir.
authors.forename: Hamed
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Ekhtiari
authors.affiliation: Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Laboratory of Neuromodulation, Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital and Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA. Electronic address: fregni.felipe@mgh.harvard.edu.
authors.forename: Felipe
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Fregni
mesh_terms: D001921:Brain / Q000502:physiology*; D004599:Electric Stimulation Therapy / Q000379:methods*; D006801:Humans; D019966:Substance-Related Disorders / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000628:therapy*; D050781:Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation / Q000379:methods*
keywords: Addiction medicine; Diagnosis; Noninvasive brain stimulation; Transcranial electrical stimulation; Transcranial magnetic stimulation; Treatment