title: Future directions in bladder cancer immunotherapy: towards adaptive immunity.
abstract: The clinical management of bladder cancer has not changed significantly in several decades. In particular, intravesical bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) immunotherapy has been a mainstay for high-risk nonmuscle invasive bladder cancer since the late 1970s/early 1980s. This is despite the fact that bladder cancer has the highest recurrence rates of any cancer and BCG immunotherapy has not been shown to induce a tumor-specific immune response. We and others have hypothesized that immunotherapies capable of inducing tumor-specific adaptive immunity are needed to impact bladder cancer morbidity and mortality. This article summarizes the preclinical and clinical development of bladder cancer immunotherapies with an emphasis on the last 5 years. Expected progress in the near future is also discussed.
authors: Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA.
authors: Sean G
authors: SG
authors: Smith
authors: Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA.
authors: David A
authors: DA
authors: Zaharoff
mesh_terms: D056704:Adaptive Immunity; D000818:Animals; D000951:Antigens, Neoplasm / Q000276:immunology; D000970:Antineoplastic Agents / Q000494:pharmacology / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D002986:Clinical Trials as Topic; D004195:Disease Models, Animal; D006801:Humans; D007167:Immunotherapy / Q000379:methods* / Q000639:trends; D008213:Lymphocyte Activation; D009163:Mycobacterium bovis / Q000276:immunology; D011948:Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors; D012008:Recurrence; D013601:T-Lymphocytes / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000276:immunology / Q000637:transplantation; D001749:Urinary Bladder Neoplasms / Q000276:immunology / Q000628:therapy*
chemical_list: D000951:Antigens, Neoplasm; D000970:Antineoplastic Agents; D011948:Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell
keywords: BCG; IL-12; Toll-like receptors; adaptive; bladder cancer; checkpoint inhibitors; cytokines; immunotherapy; memory