title: Diurnal testosterone variability is differentially associated with parenting quality in mothers and fathers.
abstract: Previous studies on the relation between testosterone (T) levels and parenting have found ample evidence for the challenge hypothesis, demonstrating that high T levels inhibit parental involvement and that becoming a parent is related to a decrease in T levels in both mothers and fathers. However, less is known about the relation between T levels and more qualitative aspects of parenting. In the current study we examined basal T levels and diurnal variability in T levels in relation to mothers' and fathers' parenting quality. Participants included 217 fathers and 124 mothers with two children (3 and 5years of age). Evening and morning salivary T samples were analyzed with radio-immunoassays to determine circulating T levels. Parental sensitivity (i.e., child-centered responsiveness) and respect for children's autonomy were observed during free play in the family home. The results showed that higher evening T levels in mothers were associated with more sensitivity to the oldest and youngest child. Diurnal T variability was more consistently associated with parenting behavior towards their children than basal T levels. For fathers, more diurnal variability in T was associated with more sensitivity and more respect for autonomy with their youngest children. For mothers, more diurnal variability in T was associated with less sensitivity to both children and less respect for the youngest child's autonomy. These findings suggest that the T system might act differently in relation to parenting behavior in males and females.
authors: Centre for Child and Family Studies, Leiden University, The Netherlands.
authors: Joyce J
authors: JJ
authors: Endendijk
authors: Centre for Child and Family Studies, Leiden University, The Netherlands.
authors: Elizabeth T
authors: ET
authors: Hallers-Haalboom
authors: Centre for Child and Family Studies, Leiden University, The Netherlands.
authors: Marleen G
authors: MG
authors: Groeneveld
authors: Centre for Child and Family Studies, Leiden University, The Netherlands.
authors: Sheila R
authors: SR
authors: van Berkel
authors: Centre for Child and Family Studies, Leiden University, The Netherlands.
authors: Lotte D
authors: LD
authors: van der Pol
authors: Centre for Child and Family Studies, Leiden University, The Netherlands.
authors: Marian J
authors: MJ
authors: Bakermans-Kranenburg
authors: Centre for Child and Family Studies, Leiden University, The Netherlands. Electronic address: mesmanj@fsw.leidenuniv.nl.
authors: Judi
authors: J
authors: Mesman
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D002940:Circadian Rhythm / Q000502:physiology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D008297:Male; D008425:Maternal Behavior / Q000502:physiology*; D016487:Parenting / Q000523:psychology*; D010332:Paternal Behavior / Q000502:physiology*; D010553:Personality Development; D012951:Socialization; D013739:Testosterone / Q000097:blood*
chemical_list: D013739:Testosterone
keywords: Diurnal variability; Fathers; Mothers; Parenting quality; Testosterone levels