title: European shags optimize their flight behavior according to wind conditions.
abstract: Aerodynamics results in two characteristic speeds of flying birds: the minimum power speed and the maximum range speed. The minimum power speed requires the lowest rate of energy expenditure per unit time to stay airborne and the maximum range speed maximizes air distance traveled per unit of energy consumed. Therefore, if birds aim to minimize the cost of transport under a range of wind conditions, they are predicted to fly at the maximum range speed. Furthermore, take-off is predicted to be strongly affected by wind speed and direction. To investigate the effect of wind conditions on take-off and cruising flight behavior, we equipped 14 European shags Phalacrocorax aristotelis with a back-mounted GPS logger to measure position and hence ground speed, and a neck-mounted accelerometer to record wing beat frequency and strength. Local wind conditions were recorded during the deployment period. Shags always took off into the wind regardless of their intended destination and take-off duration was correlated negatively with wind speed. We combined ground speed and direction during the cruising phase with wind speed and direction to estimate air speed and direction. Whilst ground speed was highly variable, air speed was comparatively stable, although it increased significantly during strong head winds, because of stronger wing beats. The increased air speeds in head winds suggest that birds fly at the maximum range speed, not at the minimum power speed. Our study demonstrates that European shags actively adjust their flight behavior to utilize wind power to minimize the costs of take-off and cruising flight.
authors: Atmosphere and Ocean Research Institute, The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8564, Japan.
authors: Yukihisa
authors: Y
authors: Kogure
authors: Atmosphere and Ocean Research Institute, The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8564, Japan katsu@aori.u-tokyo.ac.jp.
authors: Katsufumi
authors: K
authors: Sato
authors: Graduate School of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido University, Minato-cho 3-1-1, Hakodate 041-8611, Japan.
authors: Yutaka
authors: Y
authors: Watanuki
authors: Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Bush Estate, Penicuik, Midlothian EH26 0QB, UK.
authors: Sarah
authors: S
authors: Wanless
authors: Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Bush Estate, Penicuik, Midlothian EH26 0QB, UK.
authors: Francis
authors: F
authors: Daunt
mesh_terms: D061725:Accelerometry; D000818:Animals; D001717:Birds / Q000502:physiology*; D005426:Flight, Animal; D040362:Geographic Information Systems; D008297:Male; D014919:Wind
keywords: Accelerometer; GPS; Maximum range speed; Minimum power speed