title: The reproductive advantages of a long life: longevity and senescence in wild female African elephants.
abstract: Long-lived species such as elephants, whales and primates exhibit extended post-fertile survival compared to species with shorter lifespans but data on age-related fecundity and survival are limited to few species or populations. We assess relationships between longevity, reproductive onset, reproductive rate and age for 834 longitudinally monitored wild female African elephants in Amboseli, Kenya. The mean known age at first reproduction was 13.8 years; only 5 % commenced reproduction by 10 years. Early reproducers (<12.5 years) had higher age-specific fertility rates than did females who commenced reproduction late (15+ years) with no differences in survival between these groups. Age-specific reproductive rates of females dying before 40 years were reduced by comparison to same-aged survivors, illustrating a mortality filter and reproductive advantages of a long life. Overall, 95 % of fertility was completed before 50, and 95 % of mortality experienced by age 65, with a mean life expectancy of 41 years for females who survived to the minimum age at first birth (9 years). Elephant females have a relatively long period (c. 16 years) of viability after 95 % completed fertility, although reproduction does not entirely cease until they are over 65. We found no evidence of increased investment among females aged over 40 in terms of delay to next birth or calf mortality. The presence of a mother reproducing simultaneously with her daughter was associated with higher rates of daughter reproduction suggesting advantages from maternal (and grandmaternal) co-residence during reproduction.
authors.affiliation: Amboseli Trust for Elephants, P.O. Box 15135, Langata, 00509 Nairobi Kenya ; Behaviour and Evolution Research Group, Psychology, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA UK.
authors.forename: Phyllis C
authors.identifier: 0000-0002-4296-3513
authors.initials: PC
authors.lastname: Lee
authors.affiliation: Amboseli Trust for Elephants, P.O. Box 15135, Langata, 00509 Nairobi Kenya ; Behaviour and Evolution Research Group, Psychology, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA UK.
authors.forename: Victoria
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Fishlock
authors.affiliation: Behaviour and Evolution Research Group, Psychology, School of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA UK.
authors.forename: C Elizabeth
authors.initials: CE
authors.lastname: Webber
authors.affiliation: Amboseli Trust for Elephants, P.O. Box 15135, Langata, 00509 Nairobi Kenya.
authors.forename: Cynthia J
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: Moss
keywords: Age-specific reproductive rates; Care allocation; Grandmothering; Mortality filters; Post-reproductive survival