title: The impact of ADHD persistence, recent cannabis use, and age of regular cannabis use onset on subcortical volume and cortical thickness in young adults.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Both Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and chronic cannabis (CAN) use have been associated with brain structural abnormalities, although little is known about the effects of both in young adults.
  
  
  METHODS
  Participants included: those with a childhood diagnosis of ADHD who were CAN users (ADHD_CAN; n=37) and non-users (NU) (ADHD_NU; n=44) and a local normative comparison group (LNCG) who did (LNCG_CAN; n=18) and did not (LNCG_NU; n=21) use CAN regularly. Multiple regressions and MANCOVAs were used to examine the independent and interactive effects of a childhood ADHD diagnosis and CAN group status and age of onset (CUO) on subcortical volumes and cortical thickness.
  
  
  RESULTS
  After controlling for age, gender, total brain volume, nicotine use, and past-year binge drinking, childhood ADHD diagnosis did not predict brain structure; however, persistence of ADHD was associated with smaller left precentral/postcentral cortical thickness. Compared to all non-users, CAN users had decreased cortical thickness in right hemisphere superior frontal sulcus, anterior cingulate, and isthmus of cingulate gyrus regions and left hemisphere superior frontal sulcus and precentral gyrus regions. Early cannabis use age of onset (CUO) in those with ADHD predicted greater right hemisphere superior frontal and postcentral cortical thickness.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Young adults with persistent ADHD demonstrated brain structure abnormalities in regions underlying motor control, working memory and inhibitory control. Further, CAN use was linked with abnormal brain structure in regions with high concentrations of cannabinoid receptors. Additional large-scale longitudinal studies are needed to clarify how substance use impacts neurodevelopment in youth with and without ADHD.
authors.affiliation: University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Psychology Department, 2441 E. Hartford Ave, Milwaukee, WI 53211, United States. Electronic address: krista.medina@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Krista M
authors.initials: KM
authors.lastname: Lisdahl
authors.affiliation: Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, 3333 Burnet Avenue, ML10006, Cincinnati, OH 45229, United States.
authors.forename: Leanne
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Tamm
authors.affiliation: Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, 3333 Burnet Avenue, ML10006, Cincinnati, OH 45229, United States.
authors.forename: Jeffery N
authors.initials: JN
authors.lastname: Epstein
authors.affiliation: University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive #0115, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States.
authors.forename: Terry
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Jernigan
authors.affiliation: University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Department of Psychology, 3811 O'Hara St., Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States.
authors.forename: Brooke S G
authors.initials: BS
authors.lastname: Molina
authors.affiliation: University of California-Berkeley, Department of Psychology, Tolman Hall, Berkeley, CA 94720-1650, United States.
authors.forename: Stephen P
authors.initials: SP
authors.lastname: Hinshaw
authors.affiliation: University of California, Irvine, 19722 MacArthur Boulevard, Irvine, CA 92612, United States.
authors.forename: James M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Swanson
authors.affiliation: University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive #0115, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States.
authors.forename: Erik
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Newman
authors.affiliation: The Child Center at New York University, Langone Medical Center, New York, NY 10016, United States.
authors.forename: Clare
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Kelly
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry, Virginia Commonwealth University, United States.
authors.forename: James M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Bjork
authors.affiliation: University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Psychology Department, 2441 E. Hartford Ave, Milwaukee, WI 53211, United States; Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, 3333 Burnet Avenue, ML10006, Cincinnati, OH 45229, United States; University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive #0115, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States; University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Department of Psychology, 3811 O'Hara St., Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States; University of California-Berkeley, Department of Psychology, Tolman Hall, Berkeley, CA 94720-1650, United States; University of California, Irvine, 19722 MacArthur Boulevard, Irvine, CA 92612, United States; The Child Center at New York University, Langone Medical Center, New York, NY 10016, United States; Department of Psychiatry, Virginia Commonwealth University, United States.
mesh_terms: D017668:Age of Onset; D001289:Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000473:pathology* / Q000523:psychology; D016022:Case-Control Studies; D002540:Cerebral Cortex / Q000473:pathology*; D005260:Female; D005625:Frontal Lobe / Q000473:pathology*; D006179:Gyrus Cinguli / Q000473:pathology*; D006801:Humans; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008279:Magnetic Resonance Imaging; D008297:Male; D008385:Marijuana Smoking / Q000523:psychology*; D059906:Neuroimaging; D055815:Young Adult
keywords: ADHD; ADHD persistence; Cannabis; Cortical thickness; Early onset; MRI; Marijuana; Young adults