title: Training children's theory-of-mind: A meta-analysis of controlled studies.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Theory-of-mind (ToM) refers to knowledge and awareness of mental states in oneself and others. Various training programs have been developed to improve ToM in children.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  In the present study, we conducted a quantitative review of ToM training programs that have been tested in controlled studies.
  
  
  METHODS
  A literature search was conducted using PubMed, PsycInfo, the Cochrane Library, and manual searches.
  
  
  METHODS
  We identified 32 papers with 45 studies or experiments that included 1529 children with an average age of 63 months (SD=28.7).
  
  
  RESULTS
  ToM training procedures were more effective than control procedures and their aggregate effect size was moderately strong (Hedges' g=0.75, CI=0.60-0.89, p<.001). Moderator analyses revealed that although ToM training programs were generally effective, ToM skill-related outcomes increased with length of training sessions and were significantly higher in active control studies.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  ToM training procedures can effectively enhance ToM in children.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, 648 Beacon Street, 6th Floor, Boston, MA 02215, USA. Electronic address: shofmann@bu.edu.
authors.forename: Stefan G
authors.initials: SG
authors.lastname: Hofmann
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, Claremont McKenna College, 850 Columbia Ave., Claremont, CA 91711, USA. Electronic address: sdoan@cmc.edu.
authors.forename: Stacey N
authors.initials: SN
authors.lastname: Doan
authors.affiliation: Psychosomatisches Zentrum Waldviertel, Grafenberg Straße 2, 3730 Eggenburg, Austria. Electronic address: manuel.sprung@pszw.at.
authors.forename: Manuel
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Sprung
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, Ohio State University, 225 Psychology Building, 1835 Neil Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA. Electronic address: anne.wilson80@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Anne
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Wilson
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, Duksung Women's University, 33, Samyangro 144-gil, (419 Ssangmun Dong), Dobong Gu, Seoul 132-714, South Korea. Electronic address: ebesutani@duksung.ac.kr.
authors.forename: Chad
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Ebesutani
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, 648 Beacon Street, 6th Floor, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
authors.forename: Leigh A
authors.initials: LA
authors.lastname: Andrews
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Boston University, 648 Beacon Street, 6th Floor, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
authors.forename: Joshua
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Curtiss
authors.affiliation: Graduate School of Education, Harvard University, 503A Larsen Hall, Appian Way, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. Electronic address: paul_harris@gse.harvard.edu.
authors.forename: Paul L
authors.initials: PL
authors.lastname: Harris
mesh_terms: D000367:Age Factors; D002648:Child; D018849:Controlled Clinical Trials as Topic / Q000379:methods*; D006801:Humans; D013663:Teaching / Q000523:psychology*; D056345:Theory of Mind / Q000502:physiology*
keywords: Appearance–reality; False beliefs; Intervention; Meta-analysis; Theory of mind; Training