title: Salmonella Suppresses the TRIF-Dependent Type I Interferon Response in Macrophages.
abstract: Salmonella enterica is an intracellular pathogen that causes diseases ranging from gastroenteritis to typhoid fever. Salmonella bacteria trigger an autophagic response in host cells upon infection but have evolved mechanisms for suppressing this response, thereby enhancing intracellular survival. We recently reported that S. enterica serovar Typhimurium actively recruits the host tyrosine kinase focal adhesion kinase (FAK) to the surface of the Salmonella-containing vacuole (SCV) (K. A. Owen et al., PLoS Pathog 10:e1004159, 2014). FAK then suppresses autophagy through activation of the Akt/mTORC1 signaling pathway. In FAK(-/-) macrophages, bacteria are captured in autophagosomes and intracellular survival is attenuated. Here we show that the cell-autonomous bacterial suppression of autophagy also suppresses the broader innate immune response by inhibiting production of beta interferon (IFN-β). Induction of bacterial autophagy (xenophagy), but not autophagy alone, triggers IFN-β production through a pathway involving the adapter TRIF and endosomal Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) and TLR4. Selective FAK knockout in macrophages resulted in rapid bacterial clearance from mucosal tissues after oral infection. Clearance correlated with increased IFN-β production by intestinal macrophages and with IFN-β-dependent induction of IFN-γ by intestinal NK cells. Blockade of either IFN-β or IFN-γ increased host susceptibility to infection, whereas experimental induction of IFN-β was protective. Thus, bacterial suppression of autophagy not only enhances cell-autonomous survival but also suppresses more-systemic innate immune responses by limiting type I and type II interferons.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium represents one of the most commonly identified bacterial causes of foodborne illness worldwide. S. Typhimurium has developed numerous strategies to evade detection by the host immune system. Autophagy is a cellular process that involves the recognition and degradation of defective proteins and organelles. More recently, autophagy has been described as an important means by which host cells recognize and eliminate invading intracellular pathogens and plays a key role in the production of cytokines. Previously, we determined that Salmonella bacteria are able to suppress their own autophagic capture and elimination by macrophages. Building on that study, we show here that the inhibition of autophagy by Salmonella also prevents the induction of a protective cytokine response mediated by beta interferon (IFN-β) and IFN-γ. Together, these findings identify a novel virulence strategy whereby Salmonella bacteria prevent cell autonomous elimination via autophagy and suppress the activation of innate immune responses.
authors.affiliation: Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA.
authors.forename: Katherine A
authors.initials: KA
authors.lastname: Owen
authors.affiliation: Microbiology, Immunology and Cancer Biology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA.
authors.forename: C J
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: Anderson
authors.affiliation: Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA Microbiology, Immunology and Cancer Biology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA jec9e@virginia.edu.
authors.forename: James E
authors.initials: JE
authors.lastname: Casanova
mesh_terms: D033942:Adaptor Proteins, Vesicular Transport / Q000378:metabolism; D000818:Animals; D001343:Autophagy; D051416:Focal Adhesion Protein-Tyrosine Kinases / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism; D007113:Immunity, Innate; D016899:Interferon-beta / Q000096:biosynthesis* / Q000276:immunology*; D007371:Interferon-gamma / Q000096:biosynthesis / Q000276:immunology; D007422:Intestines / Q000166:cytology; D007694:Killer Cells, Natural / Q000276:immunology; D008264:Macrophages / Q000276:immunology* / Q000382:microbiology*; D051379:Mice; D018345:Mice, Knockout; D012481:Salmonella Infections, Animal / Q000276:immunology* / Q000382:microbiology; D012486:Salmonella typhimurium / Q000276:immunology / Q000472:pathogenicity*; D051196:Toll-Like Receptor 3 / Q000378:metabolism; D051197:Toll-Like Receptor 4 / Q000378:metabolism
chemical_list: D033942:Adaptor Proteins, Vesicular Transport; D051416:Focal Adhesion Protein-Tyrosine Kinases; D016899:Interferon-beta; D007371:Interferon-gamma; D051196:Toll-Like Receptor 3; D051197:Toll-Like Receptor 4; C476286:Ticam1 protein, mouse