title: Appearance of β-lactam Resistance Genes in Agricultural Soils and Clinical Isolates over the 20th Century.
abstract: Debate exists about whether agricultural versus medical antibiotic use drives increasing antibiotic resistance (AR) across nature. Both sectors have been inconsistent at antibiotic stewardship, but it is unclear which sector has most influenced acquired AR on broad scales. Using qPCR and soils archived since 1923 at Askov Experimental Station in Denmark, we quantified four broad-spectrum β-lactam AR genes (ARG; bla(TEM), bla(SHV), bla(OXA) and bla(CTX-M)) and class-1 integron genes (int1) in soils from manured (M) versus inorganic fertilised (IF) fields. "Total" β-lactam ARG levels were significantly higher in M versus IF in soils post-1940 (paired-t test; p < 0.001). However, dominant individual ARGs varied over time; bla(TEM) and bla(SHV) between 1963 and 1974, bla(OXA) slightly later, and bla(CTX-M) since 1988. These dates roughly parallel first reporting of these genes in clinical isolates, suggesting ARGs in animal manure and humans are historically interconnected. Archive data further show when non-therapeutic antibiotic use was banned in Denmark, bla(CTX-M) levels declined in M soils, suggesting accumulated soil ARGs can be reduced by prudent antibiotic stewardship. Conversely, int1 levels have continued to increase in M soils since 1990, implying direct manure application to soils should be scrutinized as part of future stewardship programs.
authors.affiliation: School of Civil Engineering &Geosciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom, NE1 7RU.
authors.forename: David W
authors.initials: DW
authors.lastname: Graham
authors.affiliation: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom, G1 1XJ.
authors.forename: Charles W
authors.initials: CW
authors.lastname: Knapp
authors.affiliation: Department of Agroecology, Aarhus University, AU-Foulum, DK-8830 Tjele, Denmark.
authors.forename: Bent T
authors.initials: BT
authors.lastname: Christensen
authors.affiliation: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom, G1 1XJ.
authors.forename: Seánín
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: McCluskey
authors.affiliation: School of Civil Engineering &Geosciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom, NE1 7RU.
authors.forename: Jan
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Dolfing
mesh_terms: D016573:Agrochemicals / Q000032:analysis*; D000818:Animals; D006801:Humans; D008506:Medical Waste / Q000032:analysis*; D012987:Soil / Q000737:chemistry*; D012988:Soil Microbiology; D018440:beta-Lactam Resistance / Q000235:genetics*
chemical_list: D016573:Agrochemicals; D008506:Medical Waste; D012987:Soil