title: Dynamics of Chikungunya Virus Cell Entry Unraveled by Single-Virus Tracking in Living Cells.
abstract: Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is a rapidly emerging mosquito-borne human pathogen causing major outbreaks in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. The cell entry pathway hijacked by CHIKV to infect a cell has been studied previously using inhibitory compounds. There has been some debate on the mechanism by which CHIKV enters the cell: several studies suggest that CHIKV enters via clathrin-mediated endocytosis, while others show that it enters independently of clathrin. Here we applied live-cell microscopy and monitored the cell entry behavior of single CHIKV particles in living cells transfected with fluorescent marker proteins. This approach allowed us to obtain detailed insight into the dynamic events that occur during CHIKV entry. We observed that almost all particles fused within 20 min after addition to the cells. Of the particles that fused, the vast majority first colocalized with clathrin. The average time from initial colocalization with clathrin to the moment of membrane fusion was 1.7 min, highlighting the rapidity of the cell entry process of CHIKV. Furthermore, these results show that the virus spends a relatively long time searching for a receptor. Membrane fusion was observed predominantly from within Rab5-positive endosomes and often occurred within 40 s after delivery to endosomes. Furthermore, we confirmed that a valine at position 226 of the E1 protein enhances the cholesterol-dependent membrane fusion properties of CHIKV. To conclude, our work confirms that CHIKV enters cells via clathrin-mediated endocytosis and shows that fusion occurs from within acidic early endosomes.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  Since its reemergence in 2004, chikungunya virus (CHIKV) has spread rapidly around the world, leading to millions of infections. CHIKV often causes chikungunya fever, a self-limiting febrile illness with severe arthralgia. Currently, no vaccine or specific antiviral treatment against CHIKV is available. A potential antiviral strategy is to interfere with the cell entry process of the virus. However, conflicting results with regard to the cell entry pathway used by CHIKV have been published. Here we applied a novel technology to visualize the entry behavior of single CHIKV particles in living cells. Our results show that CHIKV cell entry is extremely rapid and occurs via clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Membrane fusion from within acidic early endosomes is observed. Furthermore, the membrane fusion capacity of CHIKV is strongly promoted by cholesterol in the target membrane. Taking these findings together, this study provides detailed insight into the cell entry process of CHIKV.
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Tabitha E
authors.initials: TE
authors.lastname: Hoornweg
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Mareike K S
authors.initials: MKS
authors.lastname: van Duijl-Richter
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Nilda V
authors.initials: NV
authors.lastname: Ayala Nuñez
authors.affiliation: Molecular Virology Laboratory, Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Irina C
authors.initials: IC
authors.lastname: Albulescu
authors.affiliation: Molecular Virology Laboratory, Department of Medical Microbiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Martijn J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: van Hemert
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands jolanda.smit@umcg.nl.
authors.forename: Jolanda M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Smit
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D002460:Cell Line; D002478:Cells, Cultured; D065632:Chikungunya Fever / Q000821:virology; D002646:Chikungunya virus / Q000502:physiology*; D002522:Chlorocebus aethiops; D002784:Cholesterol / Q000378:metabolism; D002966:Clathrin / Q000378:metabolism; D004705:Endocytosis; D011992:Endosomes / Q000378:metabolism / Q000821:virology; D006801:Humans; D008561:Membrane Fusion; D008856:Microscopy, Fluorescence; D057054:Molecular Imaging / Q000379:methods; D013194:Staining and Labeling; D053586:Virus Internalization; D018406:Virus Physiological Phenomena
chemical_list: D002966:Clathrin; D002784:Cholesterol