title: Association Between Malaria and Invasive Nontyphoidal Salmonella Infection in a Hospital Study: Accounting for Berkson's Bias.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  There is growing evidence for a positive association between malaria and invasive nontyphoidal Salmonella (iNTS) disease. However, case-control studies conducted within healthcare facilities also report inverse associations. This may be due to Berkson's bias, a selection bias that acts when both exposure and outcome are associated with hospital attendance and study participants are selected among attendees only. This study describes the effect of Berkson's bias on the malaria-iNTS association and provides a less biased effect estimate.
  
  
  METHODS
  Data collected in 2 Ghanaian hospitals were analyzed using 2 case-control approaches. In both approaches, cases were defined as iNTS-positive children, and concomitant malaria infection was the exposure of interest. In the first conventional sampling approach, children without any febrile bloodstream infection served as controls. In the second control-disease approach, children with non-iNTS bacteremia were used as controls.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Data from 6746 children were suitable for the analyses. One hundred sixty children with iNTS infection were study cases. In the conventional case-control approach 6301 children were controls, and in the control-disease approach 285 children were controls. In the conventional case-control study, malaria was estimated to protect against iNTS disease (odds ratio [OR], 0.4; 95% confidence interval [CI], .3-.7), whereas in the control-disease approach, malaria was identified to be a risk factor for iNTS disease (OR, 1.9; 95% CI, 1.1-3.3).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The study highlights how a selection bias may reverse results if an unsuitable control group is used and adds further evidence on the malaria-iNTS disease association.
authors.affiliation: Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg German Center for Infection Research, Hamburg-Borstel-Lübeck.
authors.forename: Ralf
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Krumkamp
authors.affiliation: Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg German Center for Infection Research, Hamburg-Borstel-Lübeck Division of Tropical Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine I, University Medical Centre Hamburg Eppendorf, Germany.
authors.forename: Benno
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Kreuels
authors.affiliation: Kumasi Centre for Collaborative Research in Tropical Medicine, Ghana.
authors.forename: Nimako
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Sarpong
authors.affiliation: Kumasi Centre for Collaborative Research in Tropical Medicine, Ghana.
authors.forename: Kennedy Gyau
authors.initials: KG
authors.lastname: Boahen
authors.affiliation: Kumasi Centre for Collaborative Research in Tropical Medicine, Ghana.
authors.forename: Geoffrey
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Foli
authors.affiliation: Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg.
authors.forename: Benedikt
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Hogan
authors.affiliation: Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg.
authors.forename: Anna
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Jaeger
authors.affiliation: Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg German Center for Infection Research, Hamburg-Borstel-Lübeck.
authors.forename: Lisa
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Reigl
authors.affiliation: Leibniz Institute for Prevention Research and Epidemiology-BIPS GmbH, Bremen, Germany.
authors.forename: Hajo
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Zeeb
authors.affiliation: International Vaccine Institute, Seoul, South Korea.
authors.forename: Florian
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Marks
authors.affiliation: Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana.
authors.forename: Yaw
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Adu-Sarkodie
authors.affiliation: Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg German Center for Infection Research, Hamburg-Borstel-Lübeck.
authors.forename: Jürgen
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: May
mesh_terms: D015982:Bias; D016022:Case-Control Studies; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D060085:Coinfection / Q000453:epidemiology*; D005260:Female; D006761:Hospitals; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D008288:Malaria / Q000150:complications* / Q000453:epidemiology*; D008297:Male; D012480:Salmonella Infections / Q000150:complications* / Q000453:epidemiology*
keywords: case-control study; coinfection; malaria; nontyphoid Salmonella; selection bias