title: Cortical mechanics and myosin-II abnormalities associated with post-ovulatory aging: implications for functional defects in aged eggs.
abstract: Cellular aging of the egg following ovulation, also known as post-ovulatory aging, is associated with aberrant cortical mechanics and actomyosin cytoskeleton functions.
  
  
  
  Post-ovulatory aging is associated with dysfunction of non-muscle myosin-II, and pharmacologically induced myosin-II dysfunction produces some of the same deficiencies observed in aged eggs.
  
  
  
  Reproductive success is reduced with delayed fertilization and when copulation or insemination occurs at increased times after ovulation. Post-ovulatory aged eggs have several abnormalities in the plasma membrane and cortex, including reduced egg membrane receptivity to sperm, aberrant sperm-induced cortical remodeling and formation of fertilization cones at the site of sperm entry, and reduced ability to establish a membrane block to prevent polyspermic fertilization.
  
  
  
  Ovulated mouse eggs were collected at 21-22 h post-human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) (aged eggs) or at 13-14 h post-hCG (young eggs), or young eggs were treated with the myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) inhibitor ML-7, to test the hypothesis that disruption of myosin-II function could mimic some of the effects of post-ovulatory aging. Eggs were subjected to various analyses. Cytoskeletal proteins in eggs and parthenogenesis were assessed using fluorescence microscopy, with further analysis of cytoskeletal proteins in immunoblotting experiments. Cortical tension was measured through micropipette aspiration assays. Egg membrane receptivity to sperm was assessed in in vitro fertilization (IVF) assays. Membrane topography was examined by low-vacuum scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
  
  
  
  Aged eggs have decreased levels and abnormal localizations of phosphorylated myosin-II regulatory light chain (pMRLC; P = 0.0062). Cortical tension, which is mediated in part by myosin-II, is reduced in aged mouse eggs when compared with young eggs, by ∼40% in the cortical region where the metaphase II spindle is sequestered and by ∼50% in the domain to which sperm bind and fuse (P < 0.0001). Aging-associated parthenogenesis is partly rescued by treating eggs with a zinc ionophore (P = 0.003), as is parthenogenesis induced by inhibition of mitogen-activated kinase (MAPK) 3/1 [also known as extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2] or MLCK. Inhibition of MLCK with ML-7 also results in effects that mimic those of post-ovulatory aging: fertilized ML-7-treated eggs show both impaired fertilization and increased extents of polyspermy, and ML-7-treated young eggs have several membrane abnormalities that are shared by post-ovulatory aged eggs.
  
  
  
  These studies were done with mouse oocytes, and it remains to be fully determined how these findings from mouse oocytes would compare with other species. For studies using methods not amenable to analysis of large sample sizes and data are limited to what images one can capture (e.g. SEM), data should be interpreted conservatively.
  
  
  
  These data provide insights into causes of reproductive failures at later post-copulatory times.
  
  
  
  Not applicable.
  
  
  
  This project was supported by R01 HD037696 and R01 HD045671 from the NIH to J.P.E. Cortical tension studies were supported by R01 GM66817 to D.N.R. The authors declare there are no financial conflicts of interest.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, 615 N. Wolfe St, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
authors.forename: Amelia C L
authors.initials: AC
authors.lastname: Mackenzie
authors.affiliation: Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, 615 N. Wolfe St, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
authors.forename: Diane D
authors.initials: DD
authors.lastname: Kyle
authors.affiliation: Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, 615 N. Wolfe St, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
authors.forename: Lauren A
authors.initials: LA
authors.lastname: McGinnis
authors.affiliation: Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, 615 N. Wolfe St, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
authors.forename: Hyo J
authors.initials: HJ
authors.lastname: Lee
authors.affiliation: Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, 615 N. Wolfe St, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
authors.forename: Nathalia
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Aldana
authors.affiliation: Department of Cell Biology, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA.
authors.forename: Douglas N
authors.initials: DN
authors.lastname: Robinson
authors.affiliation: Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, 615 N. Wolfe St, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA jevans6@jhu.edu.
authors.forename: Janice P
authors.initials: JP
authors.lastname: Evans
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001381:Azepines / Q000494:pharmacology; D016922:Cellular Senescence / Q000235:genetics / Q000502:physiology*; D003599:Cytoskeleton / Q000378:metabolism; D005260:Female; D008297:Male; D051379:Mice; D008856:Microscopy, Fluorescence; D024462:Myosin Type II / Q000378:metabolism; D009281:Naphthalenes / Q000494:pharmacology; D009865:Oocytes / Q000166:cytology / Q000378:metabolism; D010060:Ovulation / Q000235:genetics / Q000502:physiology; D010063:Ovum / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000473:pathology; D013084:Sperm-Ovum Interactions / Q000235:genetics / Q000502:physiology; D013094:Spermatozoa / Q000166:cytology / Q000378:metabolism
chemical_list: D001381:Azepines; D009281:Naphthalenes; C070571:ML 7; D024462:Myosin Type II
keywords: MAPK; actin; aged oocyte; cytoskeleton; fertilization; myosin-II; oocyte aging; polyspermy