title: Feasibility of hydrogel fiducial markers for  in vivo proton range verification using PET.
abstract: Biocompatible/biodegradable hydrogel polymers were immersed in 18O-enriched water and 16O-water to create 18O-water hydrogels and 16O-water hydrogels. In both cases, the hydrogels were made of ~91 wt% water and ~9 wt% polymer. In addition, 5-8 μm Zn powder was suspended in 16O-water and 18O-enriched water and cross-linked with hydrogel polymers to create Zn/16O-water hydrogels (30/70 wt%, ~9 wt% polymer) and Zn/18O-water hydrogels (10/90 wt%), respectively. A block of extra-firm 'wet' tofu (12.3 × 8.8 × 4.9 cm, ρ  ≈  1.05 g cm−3) immersed in water was injected with Zn/16O-water hydrogels (0.9 ml each) at four different depths using an 18-gauge needle. Similarly, Zn/18O-water hydrogels (0.9 ml) were injected into a second tofu phantom. As a reference, both 16O-water hydrogels (1.8 ml) and 18O-water hydrogels (0.9 ml) in Petri dishes were irradiated in a 'dry' environment. The hydrogels in the wet tofu phantoms and dry Petri dishes were scanned via CT and images were used for treatment planning. Then, they were positioned at the proton distal dose fall-off region and irradiated (2 Gy) followed by PET/CT imaging.Notably high PET signals were observed only in 18O-water hydrogels in the dry environment. The visibility of the Zn/16O-water hydrogels injected into the tofu phantom was outstanding in CT images, but these hydrogels provided no noticeable PET signals. The visibility of the Zn/18O-water hydrogels in the wet tofu were excellent on CT and moderate on PET; however, the PET signals were weaker than those in the dry environment, possibly owing to 18O-water leaching out. The hydrogel markers studied here could be used to develop universal PET/CT fiducial markers. Their PET visibility (attributed more to activated 18O-water than Zn) after proton irradiation can be used for proton therapy/range verification. More investigation is needed to slow down the leaching of 18O-water.
authors.forename: Jongmin
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Cho
authors.forename: Patrick
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Campbell
authors.forename: Min
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Wang
authors.forename: Mamdooh
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Alqathami
authors.forename: Osama
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Mawlawi
authors.forename: Matthew
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Kerr
authors.forename: Sang Hyun
authors.initials: SH
authors.lastname: Cho
mesh_terms: D057918:Fiducial Markers / Q000009:adverse effects*; D020100:Hydrogels / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000528:radiation effects; D010103:Oxygen Isotopes; D049268:Positron-Emission Tomography / Q000379:methods*; D011522:Protons
chemical_list: D020100:Hydrogels; D010103:Oxygen Isotopes; D011522:Protons