title: How smoking affects the proportion of deaths attributable to obesity: assessing the role of relative risks and weight distributions.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Although ever-smokers make up the majority of the older adult population in the USA, they are often excluded from studies examining the impact of obesity on mortality. Understanding how smoking and obesity interact is critical to assessing the proportion of deaths attributable to obesity.
  
  
  METHODS
  Nationally representative sample of the non-institutionalised population of the USA. Baseline data were drawn from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994 and 1999-2004.
  
  
  METHODS
  US adults aged 50-74 (n=9835).
  
  
  METHODS
  We used Cox models to estimate the mortality risks of obesity by smoking status. All-cause mortality was assessed prospectively through 31 December 2006 (n=1243 deaths). Maximum body mass index (BMI) was specified as the key exposure variable. We also calculated population attributable fractions (PAFs) by smoking status and investigated differences in PAFs in a decomposition analysis.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The HR associated with a one-unit increment in BMI beyond 25.0 kg/m(2) was 1.057 for never-smokers (95% CI 1.033 to 1.082; p<0.001), 1.036 for former smokers (95% CI 1.015 to 1.059; p<0.01) and 1.024 for current smokers (95% CI 0.997 to 1.052).We estimated that 19.8% of deaths were attributable to excess weight. The PAFs were 31.9, 20.4 and 11.3 for never-smokers, former and current smokers, respectively. The difference in PAFs between never-smokers and current smokers was almost entirely explained by the difference in HRs.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The proportion of deaths attributable to obesity is nearly 3 times as high among never-smokers compared with current smokers. This finding is consistent with the fact that smokers are subject to significant competing risks. Analyses that exclude smokers are likely to substantially overestimate the proportion of deaths attributable to obesity in the USA.
authors.affiliation: Department of Global Health and Center for Global Health and Development, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
authors.forename: Andrew
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Stokes
authors.affiliation: Department of Sociology and Population Studies Center, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
authors.forename: Samuel H
authors.initials: SH
authors.lastname: Preston
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D015992:Body Mass Index; D015897:Comorbidity; D006801:Humans; D008875:Middle Aged; D009749:Nutrition Surveys; D009765:Obesity / Q000401:mortality*; D016016:Proportional Hazards Models; D012307:Risk Factors; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000453:epidemiology*; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology
keywords: EPIDEMIOLOGY; PUBLIC HEALTH; STATISTICS & RESEARCH METHODS