title: Risk to human health associated with the environmental occurrence of cyanobacterial neurotoxic alkaloids anatoxins and saxitoxins.
abstract: Cyanobacteria are ubiquitous photosynthetic micro-organisms forming blooms and scums in surface water; among them some species can produce cyanotoxins giving rise to some concern for human health and animal life. To date, more than 65 cyanobacterial neurotoxins have been described, of which the most studied are the groups of anatoxins and saxitoxins (STXs), comprising many different variants. In freshwaters, the hepatotoxic microcystins represent the most frequently detected cyanotoxin: on this basis, it could appear that neurotoxins are less relevant, but the low frequency of detection may partially reflect an a priori choice of target analytes, the low method sensitivity and the lack of certified standards. Cyanobacterial neurotoxins target cholinergic synapses or voltage-gated ion channels, blocking skeletal and respiratory muscles, thus leading to death by respiratory failure. This review reports and analyzes the available literature data on environmental occurrence of cyanobacterial neurotoxic alkaloids, namely anatoxins and STXs, their biosynthesis, toxicology and epidemiology, derivation of guidance values and action limits. These data are used as the basis to assess the risk posed to human health, identify critical exposure scenarios and highlight the major data gaps and research needs.
authors.affiliation: a Environment and Primary Prevention Department , Istituto Superiore di Sanità , Rome , Italy.
authors.forename: Emanuela
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Testai
authors.affiliation: a Environment and Primary Prevention Department , Istituto Superiore di Sanità , Rome , Italy.
authors.forename: Simona
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Scardala
authors.affiliation: a Environment and Primary Prevention Department , Istituto Superiore di Sanità , Rome , Italy.
authors.forename: Susanna
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Vichi
authors.affiliation: a Environment and Primary Prevention Department , Istituto Superiore di Sanità , Rome , Italy.
authors.forename: Franca M
authors.initials: FM
authors.lastname: Buratti
authors.affiliation: a Environment and Primary Prevention Department , Istituto Superiore di Sanità , Rome , Italy.
authors.forename: Enzo
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Funari
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001427:Bacterial Toxins / Q000032:analysis* / Q000506:poisoning / Q000633:toxicity; D000458:Cyanobacteria / Q000737:chemistry / Q000378:metabolism; D000087522:Cyanobacteria Toxins; D006801:Humans; D008387:Marine Toxins / Q000032:analysis* / Q000506:poisoning / Q000633:toxicity; D052998:Microcystins / Q000032:analysis* / Q000506:poisoning / Q000633:toxicity; D009498:Neurotoxins / Q000032:analysis* / Q000506:poisoning / Q000633:toxicity; D018570:Risk Assessment; D012530:Saxitoxin / Q000032:analysis* / Q000506:poisoning / Q000633:toxicity
chemical_list: D001427:Bacterial Toxins; D000087522:Cyanobacteria Toxins; D008387:Marine Toxins; D052998:Microcystins; D009498:Neurotoxins; D012530:Saxitoxin
keywords: Cyanobacteria; cyanotoxins; human health; neurotoxins; toxicological risk assessment