title: Associations between maternal and paternal depressive symptoms and early child behavior problems: Testing a mutually adjusted prospective longitudinal model.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  While there is substantial empirical work on maternal depression, less is known about how mothers' and fathers' depressive symptoms compare in their association with child behavior problems in early childhood. In particular, few studies have examined unique relationships in the postpartum period by controlling for the other parent, or looked at longitudinal change in either parent's depressive symptoms across the first living years as a predictor of child problems.
  
  
  METHODS
  We examined depressive symptoms in parents at 6, 12, 24, 36 and 48 months following childbirth, and child behavior problems at 48 months. Linear growth curve analysis was used to model parents' initial levels and changes in symptoms across time and their associations with child outcomes.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Mothers' depressive symptoms at 6 months predicted behavior problems at 48 months for all syndrome scales, while fathers' did not. Estimates for mothers' symptoms were significantly stronger on all subscales. Change in fathers' depressive symptoms over time was a significantly larger predictor of child aggressive behavior than corresponding change in mothers'. No interaction effects between parents' symptoms on behavior problems appeared, and few child gender differences.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Child behavior was assessed once precluding tests for bidirectional effects. We only looked at linear change in parental symptoms.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Mothers' postpartum depressive symptoms are a stronger predictor for early child behavior problems than fathers'. Change in fathers' depressive symptoms across this developmental period was uniquely and strongly associated with child aggressive problems, and should therefore be addressed in future research and clinical practice.
authors.affiliation: The Norwegian Center for Child Behavioral Development, Postboks 7053 Majorstuen, 0306 Oslo, Norway. Electronic address: martina.narayanan@afterdssenteret.no.
authors.forename: Martina K
authors.initials: MK
authors.lastname: Narayanan
authors.affiliation: The Norwegian Center for Child Behavioral Development, Postboks 7053 Majorstuen, 0306 Oslo, Norway.
authors.forename: Ane
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Nærde
mesh_terms: D002652:Child Behavior / Q000523:psychology; D002653:Child Behavior Disorders / Q000523:psychology*; D002675:Child, Preschool; D003863:Depression / Q000523:psychology*; D019052:Depression, Postpartum / Q000523:psychology*; D005220:Fathers / Q000523:psychology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D009035:Mothers / Q000523:psychology*; D010287:Parent-Child Relations; D010290:Parents / Q000523:psychology; D011446:Prospective Studies
keywords: Child behavior problems; Depression; Early childhood; Fathers; Mothers