title: Cardiorenal syndrome type 4: From chronic kidney disease to cardiovascular impairment.
abstract: Cardiorenal syndrome type 4 (CRS type 4), or chronic renocardiac syndrome, has been defined as "chronic abnormalities in renal function leading to cardiac disease" and recognizes the extreme burden of cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). CKD is common and increasingly recognized as a risk factor for CVD. Even though the treatment for CVD has dramatically improved over the past decades, it still takes responsibility for up to 50% of deaths in CKD patients. For this reason, patients with CKD should be thoroughly evaluated for cardiovascular risk factors that require careful management, given the significant burden of CRS type 4 on the healthcare system. This review focuses on the most significant conventional and non-conventional CVD risk factors related to CKD.
authors.affiliation: Department of Nephrology and Dialysis, "San Giovanni di Dio" Hospital, Agrigento, Italy.
authors.forename: Antonio
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Granata
authors.affiliation: Department of Nephrology and Dialysis, "San Giovanni di Dio" Hospital, Agrigento, Italy; International Renal Research Institute of Vicenza, Vicenza, Italy.
authors.forename: Anna
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Clementi
authors.affiliation: International Renal Research Institute of Vicenza, Vicenza, Italy; Department of Nephrology, Dialysis and Transplant, San Bortolo Hospital, Vicenza, Italy.
authors.forename: Grazia Maria
authors.initials: GM
authors.lastname: Virzì
authors.affiliation: International Renal Research Institute of Vicenza, Vicenza, Italy; Department of Nephrology, Dialysis and Transplant, San Bortolo Hospital, Vicenza, Italy; Department of Medicine, University of Padova Medical School, Padova, Italy.
authors.forename: Alessandra
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Brocca
authors.affiliation: International Renal Research Institute of Vicenza, Vicenza, Italy; Department of Nephrology, Dialysis and Transplant, San Bortolo Hospital, Vicenza, Italy.
authors.forename: Massimo
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: de Cal
authors.affiliation: Department of Nephrology and Dialysis, "San Giovanni di Dio" Hospital, Agrigento, Italy.
authors.forename: Viviana Rosalia
authors.initials: VR
authors.lastname: Scarfia
authors.affiliation: Unit of Internal Medicine "A. Francaviglia", Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.
authors.forename: Luca
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Zanoli
authors.affiliation: International Renal Research Institute of Vicenza, Vicenza, Italy; Department of Nephrology, Dialysis and Transplant, San Bortolo Hospital, Vicenza, Italy.
authors.forename: Claudio
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Ronco
authors.affiliation: Internal Medicine Department, National Relevance Hospital Trust ARNAS "Civico, Di Cristina, Benfratelli", Palermo, Italy; Centre of Research for Effectiveness and Appropriateness in Medicine (C.R.E.A.M.), Di.Bi.M.I.S., University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy. Electronic address: s.corrao@tiscali.it.
authors.forename: Salvatore
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Corrao
authors.affiliation: Unit of Internal Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.
authors.forename: Lorenzo
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Malatino
mesh_terms: D050197:Atherosclerosis / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000209:etiology; D059347:Cardio-Renal Syndrome / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000209:etiology; D018450:Disease Progression; D006801:Humans; D006973:Hypertension / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000209:etiology; D017379:Hypertrophy, Left Ventricular / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000209:etiology; D006435:Renal Dialysis; D051436:Renal Insufficiency, Chronic / Q000150:complications* / Q000628:therapy; D012307:Risk Factors
keywords: Atherosclerosis; Cardiorenal syndrome type 4; Cardiovascular risk; Chronic kidney disease; Hypertension; Left ventricular hypertrophy