title: Urbanization and health in China, thinking at the national, local and individual levels.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  China has the biggest population in the world, and has been experiencing the largest migration in history, and its rapid urbanization has profound and lasting impacts on local and national public health. Under these conditions, a systems understanding on the correlation among urbanization, environmental change and public health and to devise solutions at national, local and individual levels are in urgent need.
  
  
  METHODS
  In this paper, we provide a comprehensive review of recent studies which have examined the relationship between urbanization, urban environmental changes and human health in China. Based on the review, coupled with a systems understanding, we summarize the challenges and opportunities for promoting the health and wellbeing of the whole nation at national, local, and individual levels.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Urbanization and urban expansion result in urban environmental changes, as well as residents' lifestyle change, which can lead independently and synergistically to human health problems. China has undergone an epidemiological transition, shifting from infectious to chronic diseases in a much shorter time frame than many other countries. Environmental risk factors, particularly air and water pollution, are a major contributing source of morbidity and mortality in China. Furthermore, aging population, food support system, and disparity of public service between the migrant worker and local residents are important contributions to China's urban health.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  At the national level, the central government could improve current environmental policies, food safety laws, and make adjustments to the health care system and to demographic policy. At the local level, local government could incorporate healthy life considerations in urban planning procedures, make improvements to the local food supply, and enforce environmental monitoring and management. At the individual level, urban residents can be exposed to education regarding health behaviour choices while being encouraged to take responsibility for their health and to participate in environmental monitoring and management.
authors.affiliation: Key Laboratory of Urban Environment & Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China. xhli@iue.ac.cn.
authors.forename: Xinhu
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Li
authors.affiliation: Key Laboratory of Urban Environment & Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China. jcsong@iue.ac.cn.
authors.forename: Jinchao
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Song
authors.affiliation: Key Laboratory of Urban Environment & Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China. tlin@iue.ac.cn.
authors.forename: Tao
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Lin
authors.affiliation: National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, the Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia. Jane.Dixon@anu.edu.au.
authors.forename: Jane
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Dixon
authors.affiliation: Key Laboratory of Urban Environment & Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China. gqzhang@iue.ac.cn.
authors.forename: Guoqin
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Zhang
authors.affiliation: Key Laboratory of Urban Environment & Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China. hye@iue.ac.cn.
authors.forename: Hong
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Ye
mesh_terms: D002681:China; D006293:Health Promotion / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence; D006801:Humans; D011634:Public Health; D014504:Urban Health; D014507:Urbanization