title: The microbiome-systemic diseases connection.
abstract: The human microbiome consists of all microorganisms occupying the skin, mucous membranes and intestinal tract of the human body. The contact of the mucosal immune system with the human microbiome is a balanced interplay between defence mechanisms of the immune system and symbiotic or pathogenic microbial factors, such as microbial antigens and metabolites. In systemic autoimmune diseases (SADs) such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus and Sjögren's syndrome, the immune system is deranged to a chronic inflammatory state and autoantibodies are an important hallmark. Specific bacteria and/or a dysbiosis in the human microbiome can lead to local mucosal inflammation and increased intestinal permeability. Proinflammatory lymphocytes and cytokines can spread to the systemic circulation and increase the risk of inflammation at distant anatomical sites, such as the joints or salivary glands. Increased intestinal permeability increases antigen exposure and the risk of autoantibody production. If the human microbiome indeed plays such a critical role in SADs, this finding holds a great promise for new therapeutic strategies, such as diet interventions and probiotics and prebiotics. This review provides a background on the human microbiome and mucosal immunity in the gut and oral cavity and gives a summary of the current knowledge on the microbiome-SADs connection.
authors.affiliation: Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands. t.a.van.der.meulen@umcg.nl.
authors.forename: T A
authors.initials: TA
authors.lastname: van der Meulen
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Hjm
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Harmsen
authors.affiliation: Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Bootsma
authors.affiliation: Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Fkl
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Spijkervet
authors.affiliation: Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Fgm
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Kroese
authors.affiliation: Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Vissink
mesh_terms: D001327:Autoimmune Diseases / Q000209:etiology / Q000382:microbiology*; D000069196:Gastrointestinal Microbiome; D006801:Humans; D007109:Immunity / Q000502:physiology; D064307:Microbiota; D009055:Mouth / Q000382:microbiology*; D009061:Mouth Mucosa / Q000276:immunology / Q000382:microbiology
keywords: autoimmune disease; autoinflammatory diseases; bacteria; immunology; immunopathology; inflammatory diseases; microbiology; pathogenesis; rheumatology