title: Mode of action of cryoprotectants for sperm preservation.
abstract: Sperm cryopreservation facilitates storage and transport for use in artificial reproduction technologies. Cryopreservation processing, however, exposes cells to stress resulting in cellular damage compromising sperm function. Cryoprotective agents are needed to minimize cryopreservation injury, but at higher concentration they are toxic to cells. In this review, we describe cryoinjury mechanisms, and modes of action of different types of cryoprotective agents. Furthermore, measures are discussed how to minimize toxic effects caused by adding and removing cryoprotective agents. Cryoprotective agents can be divided into permeating and non-permeating agents. Permeating agents such as glycerol can move across cellular membranes and modulate the rate and extent of cellular dehydration during freezing-induced membrane phase transitions. Permeating protectants provide intracellular protection because they are preferentially excluded from the surface of biomolecules thereby stabilizing the native state. Non-permeating agents can be divided into osmotically active smaller molecules and osmotically inactive macromolecules. Both, permeating and non-permeating protectants form a protective glassy state during freezing preserving biomolecular and cellular structures. Freezing extenders for sperm contain salts, buffer compounds, sugars, proteins and lipids, and typically contain glycerol as the main permeating cryoprotective agent providing intracellular protection. Non-permeating protectants including sugars and proteins are used as bulking agents and to increase the glass transition temperature of the freezing extender. Ultra-heat-treated milk and egg yolk are frequently added as membrane modifying agents to enhance the inherent sperm cryostability. The protocol how to use and add cryoprotectants is a compromise between their beneficial and potentially detrimental effects.
authors.affiliation: Clinic for Horses-Unit for Reproductive Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany. Electronic address: harald.sieme@tiho-hannover.de.
authors.forename: Harald
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Sieme
authors.affiliation: Clinic for Horses-Unit for Reproductive Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany.
authors.forename: Harriëtte
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Oldenhof
authors.affiliation: Institute of Multiphase Processes, Leibniz Universität, Hannover, Germany.
authors.forename: Willem F
authors.initials: WF
authors.lastname: Wolkers
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D015925:Cryopreservation / Q000379:methods / Q000662:veterinary*; D003451:Cryoprotective Agents / Q000494:pharmacology*; D008297:Male; D012662:Semen Preservation / Q000379:methods / Q000662:veterinary*; D013094:Spermatozoa / Q000187:drug effects*
chemical_list: D003451:Cryoprotective Agents
keywords: Cryopreservation; Cryoprotective agents; Cytotoxicity; Equine spermatozoa; Membrane phase behavior; Osmotic tolerance