title: Second malignancies after radiotherapy for prostate cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To determine the association between exposure to radiotherapy for the treatment of prostate cancer and subsequent second malignancies (second primary cancers).
  
  
  METHODS
  Systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies.
  
  
  METHODS
  Medline and Embase up to 6 April 2015 with no restrictions on year or language.
  
  
  METHODS
  Comparative studies assessing the risk of second malignancies in patients exposed or unexposed to radiotherapy in the course of treatment for prostate cancer were selected by two reviewers independently with any disagreement resolved by consensus.
  
  
  METHODS
  Two reviewers independently extracted study characteristics and outcomes. Risk of bias was assessed with the Newcastle-Ottawa scale. Outcomes were synthesized with random effects models and Mantel-Haenszel weighting. Unadjusted odds ratios and multivariable adjusted hazard ratios, when available, were pooled.
  
  
  METHODS
  Second cancers of the bladder, colorectal tract, rectum, lung, and hematologic system.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Of 3056 references retrieved, 21 studies were selected for analysis. Most included studies were large multi-institutional reports but had moderate risk of bias. The most common type of radiotherapy was external beam; 13 studies used patients treated with surgery as controls and eight used patients who did not undergo radiotherapy as controls. The length of follow-up among studies varied. There was increased risk of cancers of the bladder (four studies; adjusted hazard ratio 1.67, 95% confidence interval 1.55 to 1.80), colorectum (three studies; 1.79, 1.34 to 2.38), and rectum (three studies; 1.79, 1.34 to 2.38), but not cancers of the hematologic system (one study; 1.64, 0.90 to 2.99) or lung (two studies; 1.45, 0.70 to 3.01), after radiotherapy compared with the risk in those unexposed to radiotherapy. The odds of a second cancer varied depending on type of radiotherapy: treatment with external beam radiotherapy was consistently associated with increased odds while brachytherapy was not. Among the patients who underwent radiotherapy, from individual studies, the highest absolute rates reported for bladder, colorectal, and rectal cancers were 3.8%, 4.2%, and 1.2%, respectively, while the lowest reported rates were 0.1%, 0.3%, and 0.3%.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Radiotherapy for prostate cancer was associated with higher risks of developing second malignancies of the bladder, colon, and rectum compared with patients unexposed to radiotherapy, but the reported absolute rates were low. Further studies with longer follow-up are required to confirm these findings.
authors.affiliation: Division of Urology, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Sunnybrook Research Institute, University of Toronto, Room MG-406, 2075 Bayview Avenue, Toronto, ON M4N 3M5, Canada Institute of Health Policy, Management and Evaluation, University of Toronto, Suite 425, 155 College Street, Toronto, ON M5T 3M6, Canada.
authors.forename: Christopher J D
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: Wallis
authors.affiliation: Division of Urology, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Sunnybrook Research Institute, University of Toronto, Room MG-406, 2075 Bayview Avenue, Toronto, ON M4N 3M5, Canada.
authors.forename: Alyson L
authors.initials: AL
authors.lastname: Mahar
authors.affiliation: Department of Radiation Oncology, Mayo Clinic, 200 1st Street Southwest, Rochester, MN 55902, USA.
authors.forename: Richard
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Choo
authors.affiliation: Division of Urology, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Sunnybrook Research Institute, University of Toronto, Room MG-406, 2075 Bayview Avenue, Toronto, ON M4N 3M5, Canada.
authors.forename: Sender
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Herschorn
authors.affiliation: Division of Urology, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Sunnybrook Research Institute, University of Toronto, Room MG-406, 2075 Bayview Avenue, Toronto, ON M4N 3M5, Canada.
authors.forename: Ronald T
authors.initials: RT
authors.lastname: Kodama
authors.affiliation: Institute of Health Policy, Management and Evaluation, University of Toronto, Suite 425, 155 College Street, Toronto, ON M5T 3M6, Canada Department of Pediatrics, Mount Sinai Hospital, University of Toronto, 600 University Avenue, Toronto, ON M5G 1X5, Canada.
authors.forename: Prakesh S
authors.initials: PS
authors.lastname: Shah
authors.affiliation: Department of Radiation Oncology, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Sunnybrook Research Institute, University of Toronto, Room MG-406, 2075 Bayview Avenue, Toronto, ON M4N 3M5, Canada.
authors.forename: Cyril
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Danjoux
authors.affiliation: Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Toronto, 7th floor, 790 Bay Street, Toronto, ON M5G 1N8, Canada.
authors.forename: Steven A
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Narod
authors.affiliation: Division of Urology, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Sunnybrook Research Institute, University of Toronto, Room MG-406, 2075 Bayview Avenue, Toronto, ON M4N 3M5, Canada Robert.nam@utoronto.ca.
authors.forename: Robert K
authors.initials: RK
authors.lastname: Nam
mesh_terms: D001918:Brachytherapy / Q000009:adverse effects*; D015179:Colorectal Neoplasms / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology*; D006801:Humans; D015994:Incidence; D008297:Male; D016609:Neoplasms, Second Primary / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology*; D011471:Prostatic Neoplasms / Q000532:radiotherapy*; D012004:Rectal Neoplasms / Q000209:etiology; D018570:Risk Assessment; D001749:Urinary Bladder Neoplasms / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology*