title: Trends and molecular mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance in clinical staphylococci isolated from companion animals over a 16 year period.
abstract: The objective of this study was to investigate the evolution of resistance to antimicrobials, corresponding mechanisms and molecular characteristics of Staphylococcus spp., between 1999 and 2014.
  
  
  
  Susceptibility to 38 antimicrobials was determined for 632 clinical staphylococcal isolates obtained from companion animals (dogs, cats, horses and other animals). Twenty antimicrobial resistance genes, including mecA and mecC, were screened by PCR. Methicillin-resistant staphylococci were characterized by spa (Staphylococcus aureus), SCCmec, MLST and PFGE typing. Statistical analyses were performed using SAS v9.3 and differences were considered relevant if P ≤ 0.05.
  
  
  
  The mecA gene was identified in 74 staphylococcal isolates (11.6%): 11 MRSA (40.7%), 40 methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius (MRSP; 8.7%) and 23 methicillin-resistant CoNS (26.7%). Resistance to the majority of antimicrobials and the number of mecA-positive isolates increased significantly over time. Eighteen spa types were identified, including two new ones. MRSA isolates were divided into three PFGE clusters that included ST22-IV, ST105-II, ST398-V and ST5-VI. Most methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis isolates were of clonal complex (CC) 5, including a new ST, and clustered in eight PFGE clusters. MRSP were grouped into five PFGE clusters and included ST45-NT, ST71-II-III, ST195-III, ST196-V, ST339-NT, ST342-IV and the new ST400-III. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus haemolyticus clustered in two PFGE clusters.
  
  
  
  The significant increase in antimicrobial-resistant and mecA-positive isolates in recent years is worrying. Furthermore, several isolates are MDR, which complicates antimicrobial treatment and increases the risk of transfer to humans or human isolates. Several clonal lineages of MRSA and methicillin-resistant S. epidermidis circulating in human hospitals and the community were found, suggesting that companion animals can become infected with and contribute to the dissemination of highly successful human clones. Urgent measures, such as determination of clinical breakpoints and guidelines for antimicrobial use, are needed.
authors.affiliation: Antimicrobial and Biocide Resistance Laboratory, CIISA, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa (FMV-UL), Av. da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal.
authors.forename: Natacha
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Couto
authors.affiliation: Antimicrobial and Biocide Resistance Laboratory, CIISA, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa (FMV-UL), Av. da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal.
authors.forename: Cláudia
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Monchique
authors.affiliation: Antimicrobial and Biocide Resistance Laboratory, CIISA, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa (FMV-UL), Av. da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal.
authors.forename: Adriana
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Belas
authors.affiliation: Antimicrobial and Biocide Resistance Laboratory, CIISA, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa (FMV-UL), Av. da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal.
authors.forename: Cátia
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Marques
authors.affiliation: Animal Genetic Resources, CIISA, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa (FMV-UL), Av. da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal.
authors.forename: Luís T
authors.initials: LT
authors.lastname: Gama
authors.affiliation: Antimicrobial and Biocide Resistance Laboratory, CIISA, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa (FMV-UL), Av. da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal cpomba@fmv.ulisboa.pt.
authors.forename: Constança
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Pomba
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000890:Anti-Infective Agents / Q000494:pharmacology*; D024881:Drug Resistance, Bacterial; D016521:Electrophoresis, Gel, Pulsed-Field; D005260:Female; D005798:Genes, Bacterial; D005838:Genotype; D008297:Male; D008826:Microbial Sensitivity Tests; D017720:Molecular Epidemiology; D058885:Multilocus Sequence Typing; D057805:Pets; D016133:Polymerase Chain Reaction; D013203:Staphylococcal Infections / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000382:microbiology / Q000662:veterinary*; D013210:Staphylococcus / Q000145:classification / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification*
chemical_list: D000890:Anti-Infective Agents