title: Enigmatic human tails: A review of their history, embryology, classification, and clinical manifestations.
abstract: The presence of a human tail is a rare and intriguing phenomenon. While cases have been reported in the literature, confusion remains with respect to the proper classification, definition, and treatment methods. We review the literature concerning this anatomical derailment. We also consider the importance of excluding underlying congenital anomalies in these patients to prevent neurological deficits and other abnormal manifestations.
authors.affiliation: Seattle Science Foundation, Seattle, Washington.
authors.forename: R Shane
authors.initials: RS
authors.lastname: Tubbs
authors.affiliation: Department of Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, St George's University, West Indies, Grenada.
authors.forename: Jason
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Malefant
authors.affiliation: Department of Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, St George's University, West Indies, Grenada.
authors.forename: Marios
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Loukas
authors.affiliation: Swedish Neuroscience Institute, Seattle, Washington.
authors.forename: W
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Jerry Oakes
authors.affiliation: Swedish Neuroscience Institute, Seattle, Washington.
authors.forename: Rod J
authors.initials: RJ
authors.lastname: Oskouian
authors.affiliation: Saarland University Medical Center and Saarland University Faculty of Medicine, Homburg, Germany.
authors.forename: Fabian N
authors.initials: FN
authors.lastname: Fries
mesh_terms: D000015:Abnormalities, Multiple; D000715:Anatomy / Q000145:classification / Q000266:history; D000818:Animals; D003050:Coccyx / Q000002:abnormalities* / Q000196:embryology; D006628:Hirsutism; D049668:History, 15th Century; D049669:History, 16th Century; D049670:History, 17th Century; D049673:History, 20th Century; D049690:History, Ancient; D049691:History, Medieval; D006801:Humans; D012445:Sacrococcygeal Region / Q000002:abnormalities* / Q000196:embryology; D013623:Tail / Q000196:embryology
keywords: anatomy; caudal appendage; embryology; human tails; spinal dysraphism