title: The evolving role of immunotherapy in prostate cancer.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  In recent clinical trials, immunotherapeutic agents have demonstrated promising results for the treatment of prostate cancer. This review discusses emerging immunotherapies for prostate cancer and their evolving role in sequencing and combination therapy.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Therapeutic vaccines including PROSTVAC and DCVAC/PCa have completed promising phase 2 trials for the treatment of prostate cancer and phase 3 trials are underway. Recent evidence supports a synergistic relationship between immunotherapy agents themselves, antiandrogens and with cytotoxic chemotherapy. Prostate cancer patients with good prognostic factors, such as minimal disease burden, appear to achieve the optimal benefit from immunotherapy.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Therapeutic cancer vaccines and immunomodulating agents have demonstrated activity in the treatment of prostate cancer. Immunotherapies may alter the prostate tumor microenvironment and ongoing studies aim to provide guidance on effective sequencing and combination strategies.
authors.affiliation: aClinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda bGenitourinary Malignancies Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.
authors.forename: Lisa M
authors.initials: LM
authors.lastname: Cordes
authors.forename: James L
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Gulley
authors.forename: Ravi A
authors.initials: RA
authors.lastname: Madan
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D006801:Humans; D007167:Immunotherapy / Q000379:methods*; D008297:Male; D011471:Prostatic Neoplasms / Q000276:immunology / Q000628:therapy*; D064129:Prostatic Neoplasms, Castration-Resistant / Q000276:immunology / Q000628:therapy