title: The genetic and environmental structure of the character sub-scales of the temperament and character inventory in adolescence.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The character higher order scales (self-directedness, cooperativeness, and self-transcendence) in the temperament and character inventory are important general measures of health and well-being [Mens Sana Monograph 11:16-24 (2013)]. Recent research has found suggestive evidence of common environmental influence on the development of these character traits during adolescence. The present article expands earlier research by focusing on the internal consistency and the etiology of traits measured by the lower order sub-scales of the character traits in adolescence.
  
  
  METHODS
  The twin modeling analysis of 423 monozygotic pairs and 408 same sex dizygotic pairs estimated additive genetics (A), common environmental (C), and non-shared environmental (E) influences on twin resemblance. All twins were part of the on-going longitudinal Child and Adolescent Twin Study in Sweden (CATSS).
  
  
  RESULTS
  The twin modeling analysis suggested a common environmental contribution for two out of five self-directedness sub-scales (0.14 and 0.23), for three out of five cooperativeness sub-scales (0.07-0.17), and for all three self-transcendence sub-scales (0.10-0.12).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The genetic structure at the level of the character lower order sub-scales in adolescents shows that the proportion of the shared environmental component varies in the trait of self-directedness and in the trait of cooperativeness, while it is relatively stable across the components of self-transcendence. The presence of this unique shared environmental effect in adolescence has implications for understanding the relative importance of interventions and treatment strategies aimed at promoting overall maturation of character, mental health, and well-being during this period of the life span.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry, Center for Well-Being, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO USA.
authors.forename: Nigel
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Lester
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry, Center for Well-Being, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO USA ; Blekinge Center of Competence, Blekinge County Council, Karlskrona, Sweden ; Department of Psychology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden ; Department of Psychology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden ; Network for Empowerment and Well-Being, Lyckeby, Sweden ; Institute for Neuroscience and Physiology, Centre for Ethics, Law and Mental Health (CELAM), University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.
authors.forename: Danilo
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Garcia
authors.affiliation: Institute for Neuroscience and Physiology, Centre for Ethics, Law and Mental Health (CELAM), University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden ; R&E unit, Swedish Prison and Probation Service, Norrköping, Sweden ; Gillberg Neuropsychiatry Centre, Institution of Neuroscience and Physiology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.
authors.forename: Sebastian
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Lundström
authors.affiliation: Institute for Neuroscience and Physiology, Centre for Ethics, Law and Mental Health (CELAM), University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.
authors.forename: Sven
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Brändström
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, Lund, Sweden.
authors.forename: Maria
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Råstam
authors.affiliation: Institute for Neuroscience and Physiology, Centre for Ethics, Law and Mental Health (CELAM), University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden ; R&E unit, Swedish Prison and Probation Service, Norrköping, Sweden ; Institution for Health Sciences, University West, Trollhättan, Sweden.
authors.forename: Nóra
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Kerekes
authors.affiliation: Institute for Neuroscience and Physiology, Centre for Ethics, Law and Mental Health (CELAM), University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden ; R&E unit, Swedish Prison and Probation Service, Norrköping, Sweden.
authors.forename: Thomas
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Nilsson
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry, Center for Well-Being, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO USA.
authors.forename: C Robert
authors.initials: CR
authors.lastname: Cloninger
authors.affiliation: Institute for Neuroscience and Physiology, Centre for Ethics, Law and Mental Health (CELAM), University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.
authors.forename: Henrik
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Anckarsäter
keywords: Adolescence; CATSS; Character inventory; Cloninger’s psychobiological model; Cooperativeness; Genetics; Personality; Self-directedness; Self-transcendence; Sub-scales; Temperament