title: Genetic diversity and population genetics of the warble flies Hypoderma bovis and H. sinense in Qinghai Province, China.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Hypoderma bovis and H. sinense (Diptera: Oestridae) mainly parasitise cattle and yaks. The two parasites are pathogenic and cause economic losses that result from reduced amounts of livestock products, including milk, meat, and skin. Genetic diversity and population genetic structure of H. bovis and H. sinense have not been evaluated, but could be used to inform appropriate strategies to control these parasites.
  
  
  METHODS
  We cloned and sequenced part of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene from 60 H. bovis isolates and 52 H. sinense isolates from five locations in Qinghai Province, China, to identify polymorphisms, and infer their phylogenetic relationships, historical population expansions, and divergence time.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We identified 17 COI haplotypes from the H. bovis samples, and 23 COI haplotypes from the H. sinense samples. The haplotype and nucleotide diversities were 0.738 and 0.00202 for H. bovis, and 0.867 and 0.00300 for H. sinense, respectively, which indicates rich genetic diversity in H. bovis and H. sinense populations. Bayesian phylogenetic analysis revealed that the two species are monophyletic, and geographical structuring of haplotypes was significantly different in H. sinense (P < 0.05), but not H. bovis. Neutrality tests and mismatch distribution statistical analysis revealed that populations of the two species have undergone demographic expansions. The divergence three Hypoderma spp. (H. bovis, H. lineatum, and H. sinense) was estimated to have occurred approximately 4.5 million years ago (Mya), which indicates that the rapid uplift of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau during the late Miocene-Pliocene was associated with divergence of Hypoderma species.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Results of the present study revealed that both H. bovis and H. sinense displayed high genetic diversity and widespread population genetic differentiation within and among populations; these data, along with the molecular phylogeny, demographic history, and divergence time estimation, provide new insight into evolutionary history of these species. These findings will help elucidate speciation in Hypoderma and provide theoretical basis for epidemiological surveillance and control of these species on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau.
authors.affiliation: College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China.|Academy of Animal and Veterinary Medicine, Qinghai University, Xining, Qinghai, 810016, China.
authors.forename: Yong
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Fu
authors.affiliation: Academy of Animal and Veterinary Medicine, Qinghai University, Xining, Qinghai, 810016, China. 846751982@qq.com.
authors.forename: Wei
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Li
authors.affiliation: Academy of Animal and Veterinary Medicine, Qinghai University, Xining, Qinghai, 810016, China.
authors.forename: Hong
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Duo
authors.affiliation: Academy of Animal and Veterinary Medicine, Qinghai University, Xining, Qinghai, 810016, China.
authors.forename: Zhi-Hong
authors.initials: ZH
authors.lastname: Guo
authors.affiliation: College of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, Qinghai University, Xining, Qinghai, 810016, China.
authors.forename: Ying
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Li
authors.affiliation: College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China. Zhangym@nwsuaf.edu.cn.
authors.forename: Yan-Ming
authors.initials: YM
authors.lastname: Zhang
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D002681:China; D016000:Cluster Analysis; D004175:Diptera / Q000145:classification* / Q000235:genetics*; D003576:Electron Transport Complex IV / Q000235:genetics; D014644:Genetic Variation; D005828:Genetics, Population; D006239:Haplotypes; D058974:Phylogeography; D017422:Sequence Analysis, DNA; D062206:Spatial Analysis
chemical_list: D003576:Electron Transport Complex IV
keywords: Cytochrome c oxidase I; Hypoderma bovis; Hypoderma sinense; Hypodermosis; Population genetics