title: Why do women stop reproducing before menopause? A life-history approach to age at last birth.
abstract: Evolutionary biologists have long considered menopause to be a fundamental puzzle in understanding human fertility behaviour, as post-menopausal women are no longer physiologically capable of direct reproduction. Menopause typically occurs between 45 and 55 years of age, but across cultures and history, women often stop reproducing many years before menopause. Unlike age at first reproduction or even birth spacing, a woman nearing the end of her reproductive cycle is able to reflect upon the offspring she already has--their numbers and phenotypic qualities, including sexes. This paper reviews demographic data on age at last birth both across and within societies, and also presents a case study of age at last birth in rural Bangladeshi women. In this Bangladeshi sample, age at last birth preceded age at menopause by an average of 11 years, with marked variation around that mean, even during a period of high fertility. Moreover, age at last birth was not strongly related to age at menopause. Our literature review and case study provide evidence that stopping behaviour needs to be more closely examined as an important part of human reproductive strategies and life-history theory. Menopause may be a final marker of permanent reproductive cessation, but it is only one piece of the evolutionary puzzle.
authors.affiliation: Department of Integrative Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA mary.towner@okstate.edu.
authors.forename: Mary C
authors.identifier: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0784-1860
authors.initials: MC
authors.lastname: Towner
authors.affiliation: Department of Environmental Health, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Krakow, Poland.
authors.forename: Ilona
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Nenko
authors.affiliation: Department of Integrative Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA Department of Psychology, University of Tulsa, OK, USA.
authors.forename: Savannah E
authors.initials: SE
authors.lastname: Walton
mesh_terms: D001459:Bangladesh; D003710:Demography; D005191:Family Characteristics; D005298:Fertility; D006801:Humans; D000071421:Life History Traits; D008423:Maternal Age; D008593:Menopause; D012098:Reproduction
keywords: age at last birth; infertility; life-history theory; menopause; reproductive cessation; stopping reproduction