title: The Development and Application of Two-Chamber Reactors and Carbon Monoxide Precursors for Safe Carbonylation Reactions.
abstract: Low molecular weight gases (e.g., carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and ethylene) represent vital building blocks for the construction of a wide array of organic molecules. Whereas experimental organic chemists routinely handle solid and liquid reagents, the same is not the case for gaseous reagents. Synthetic transformations employing such reagents are commonly conducted under pressure in autoclaves or under atmospheric pressure with a balloon setup, which necessitates either specialized equipment or potentially hazardous and nonrecommended installations. Other safety concerns associated with gaseous reagents may include their toxicity and flammability and, with certain gases, their inability to be detected by human senses. Despite these significant drawbacks, industrial processes apply gaseous building blocks regularly due to their low cost and ready availability but nevertheless under a strictly controlled manner. Carbon monoxide (CO) fits with all the parameters for being a gas of immense industrial importance but with severe handling restrictions due to its inherent toxicity and flammability. In academia, as well as research and development laboratories, CO is often avoided because of these safety issues, which is a limitation for the development of new carbonylation reactions. With our desire to address the handling of CO in a laboratory setting, we designed and developed a two-chamber reactor (COware) for the controlled delivery and utilization of stoichiometric amounts of CO for Pd-catalyzed carbonylation reactions. In addition to COware, two stable and solid CO-releasing molecules (COgen and SilaCOgen) were developed, both of which release CO upon activation by either Pd catalysis or fluoride addition, respectively. The unique combination of COware with either COgen or SilaCOgen provides a simple reactor setup enabling synthetic chemists to easily perform safe carbonylation chemistry without the need for directly handling the gaseous reagent. With this technology, an array of low-pressure carbonylations were developed applying only near stoichiometric amounts of carbon monoxide. Importantly, carbon isotope variants of the CO precursors, such as (13)COgen, Sila(13)COgen, or even (14)COgen, provide a simple means for performing isotope-labeling syntheses. Finally, the COware applicability has been extended to reactions with other gases, such as hydrogen, CO2, and ethylene including their deuterium and (13)C-isotopically labeled versions where relevant. The COware system has been repeatedly demonstrated to be a valuable reactor for carrying out a wide number of transition metal-catalyzed transformations, and we believe this technology will have a significant place in many organic research laboratories.
authors.affiliation: Carbon Dioxide Activation Center (CADIAC), Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), and Department of Chemistry, Aarhus University , Gustav Wieds Vej 14, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
authors.forename: Stig D
authors.initials: SD
authors.lastname: Friis
authors.affiliation: Carbon Dioxide Activation Center (CADIAC), Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), and Department of Engineering, Aarhus University , Finlandsgade 22, 8200 Aarhus N, Denmark.
authors.forename: Anders T
authors.initials: AT
authors.lastname: Lindhardt
authors.affiliation: Carbon Dioxide Activation Center (CADIAC), Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), and Department of Chemistry, Aarhus University , Gustav Wieds Vej 14, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
authors.forename: Troels
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Skrydstrup