title: High-altitude Pulmonary Hypertension: an Update on Disease Pathogenesis and Management.
abstract: High-altitude pulmonary hypertension (HAPH) affects individuals residing at altitudes of 2,500 meters and higher. Numerous pathogenic variables play a role in disease inception and progression and include low oxygen concentration in inspired air, vasculopathy, and metabolic abnormalities. Since HAPH affects only some people living at high altitude genetic factors play a significant role in its pathogenesis. The clinical presentation of HAPH is nonspecific and includes fatigue, shortness of breath, cognitive deficits, cough, and in advanced cases hepatosplenomegaly and overt right-sided heart failure. A thorough history is important and should include a search for additional risk factors for lung disease and pulmonary hypertension (PH) such as smoking, indoor air pollution, left-sided cardiac disease and sleep disordered breathing. Twelve-lead electrocardiogram, chest X-ray and echocardiography can be used as screening tools. A definitive diagnosis should be made with right-sided heart catheterization using a modified mean pulmonary artery pressure of at least 30 mm Hg, differing from the 25 mm Hg used for other types of PH. Treatment of HAPH includes descent to a lower altitude whenever possible, oxygen therapy and the use of medications such as endothelin receptor antagonists, phosphodiesterase 5 blockers, fasudil and acetazolamide. Some recent evidence suggests that iron supplementation may also be beneficial. However, it is important to note that the scientific literature lacks long-term randomized controlled data on the pharmacologic treatment of HAPH. Thus, an individualized approach to treatment and informing the patients regarding the benefits and risks of the selected treatment regimen are essential.
authors.affiliation: University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Department of Medicine, Lexington, Kentucky, 40508, USA.
authors.forename: Aibek E
authors.initials: AE
authors.lastname: Mirrakhimov
authors.affiliation: Case Western Reserve University, Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, 11100 Euclid Ave, Cleve-land, Ohio 44106, USA.
authors.forename: Kingman P
authors.initials: KP
authors.lastname: Strohl
keywords: Altitude physiology; cardiac failure; epidemiology; treatment