title: Evolution of virulence in Photorhabdus spp., entomopathogenic nematode symbionts.
abstract: Photorhabdus is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria belonging to the Enterobacteriaceae family. In addition to forming a mutualistic relationship with the Heterorhabditidae family of nematodes, these bacteria are the causal agent of insect mortality during nematode infection, and are commonly used as biocontrol agents against pest insects in managed ecosystems. There are three described species of Photorhabdus; Photorhabdus luminescens and Photorhabdus temperata, which are strictly entomopathogens, and Photorhabdus asymbiotica, which has been isolated from wound infections in humans. While there has been extensive research on its virulence mechanisms, the evolution of virulence in Photorhabdus has not previously been investigated within a phylogenetic context. To investigate how virulence has evolved in this genus, we first reconstructed the phylogenetic relationships among 18 strains representing each of the main taxonomic lineages in the genus. Bacterial cells were injected into Galleria mellonella and Tenebrio molitor larvae, and the LT50 was calculated for each strain. These values were mapped onto the phylogeny using ancestral character reconstruction methods. With few exceptions, we found that the general trend of Photorhabdus evolution is one of increasing virulence. We also explored the relationship between virulence and Photorhabdus cell types and growth rates. Although we found no correlation between cell type and virulence, there was a strong correlation between virulence and growth rates in T. molitor. A better understanding of the origin and maintenance of virulence in this bacterium will aid in unraveling the mechanisms of the Heterorhabditis-Photorhabdus complex, resulting in the selection of more effective nematode-bacterium complexes for biocontrol.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology, Brigham Young University, 4102 Life Sciences Building, Provo, UT 84602, United States. Electronic address: blackbud84@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Dana
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Blackburn
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology, Brigham Young University, 4102 Life Sciences Building, Provo, UT 84602, United States. Electronic address: pwood@byu.edu.
authors.forename: Perry L
authors.initials: PL
authors.lastname: Wood
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology, Brigham Young University, 4102 Life Sciences Building, Provo, UT 84602, United States. Electronic address: tburk034@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Travis J
authors.initials: TJ
authors.lastname: Burk
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology, Brigham Young University, 4102 Life Sciences Building, Provo, UT 84602, United States. Electronic address: burkecrawford@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Burke
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Crawford
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology, Brigham Young University, 4102 Life Sciences Building, Provo, UT 84602, United States. Electronic address: sarahmwright1@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Sarah M
authors.initials: SM
authors.lastname: Wright
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology, Brigham Young University, 4102 Life Sciences Building, Provo, UT 84602, United States. Electronic address: byron_adams@byu.edu.
authors.forename: Byron J
authors.initials: BJ
authors.lastname: Adams
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001483:Base Sequence; D061046:Biological Control Agents; D027081:DNA Gyrase / Q000235:genetics; D004269:DNA, Bacterial / Q000235:genetics; D009036:Moths / Q000382:microbiology*; D020637:Photorhabdus / Q000235:genetics* / Q000254:growth & development / Q000472:pathogenicity*; D010802:Phylogeny; D012336:RNA, Ribosomal, 16S / Q000235:genetics; D017172:Rhabditoidea / Q000382:microbiology*; D016415:Sequence Alignment; D017422:Sequence Analysis, DNA; D013712:Tenebrio / Q000382:microbiology*; D014774:Virulence / Q000235:genetics
chemical_list: D061046:Biological Control Agents; D004269:DNA, Bacterial; D012336:RNA, Ribosomal, 16S; D027081:DNA Gyrase
keywords: Ancestral character reconstruction; Entomopathogenic nematode; Phylogeny