title: The importance of understanding individual differences in Down syndrome.
abstract: In this article, we first present a summary of the general assumptions about Down syndrome (DS) still to be found in the literature. We go on to show how new research has modified these assumptions, pointing to a wide range of individual differences at every level of description. We argue that, in the context of significant increases in DS life expectancy, a focus on individual differences in trisomy 21 at all levels-genetic, cellular, neural, cognitive, behavioral, and environmental-constitutes one of the best approaches for understanding genotype/phenotype relations in DS and for exploring risk and protective factors for Alzheimer's disease in this high-risk population.
authors.affiliation: Centre for Brain & Cognitive Development, Birkbeck University of London, London, WC1E 7HX, UK; The London Down Syndrome Consortium (LonDownS), University College London, London, UK.
authors.forename: Annette
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Karmiloff-Smith
authors.affiliation: The London Down Syndrome Consortium (LonDownS), University College London, London, UK; Division of Psychiatry, University College London, London, W1T 7NF, UK.
authors.forename: Tamara
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Al-Janabi
authors.affiliation: Centre for Brain & Cognitive Development, Birkbeck University of London, London, WC1E 7HX, UK; The London Down Syndrome Consortium (LonDownS), University College London, London, UK.
authors.forename: Hana
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: D'Souza
authors.affiliation: The London Down Syndrome Consortium (LonDownS), University College London, London, UK; The Blizard Institute, Barts & The London School of Medicine, Queen Mary University of London, London, E1 2AT, UK.
authors.forename: Jurgen
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Groet
authors.affiliation: Centre for Brain & Cognitive Development, Birkbeck University of London, London, WC1E 7HX, UK; The London Down Syndrome Consortium (LonDownS), University College London, London, UK.
authors.forename: Esha
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Massand
authors.affiliation: The London Down Syndrome Consortium (LonDownS), University College London, London, UK; Department of Molecular Neuroscience, University College London Institute of Neurology, London, WC1N 3BG, UK; Division of Life Science, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong SAR, China.
authors.forename: Kin
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Mok
authors.affiliation: The London Down Syndrome Consortium (LonDownS), University College London, London, UK; Division of Psychiatry, University College London, London, W1T 7NF, UK.
authors.forename: Carla
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Startin
authors.affiliation: The London Down Syndrome Consortium (LonDownS), University College London, London, UK; Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, Institute of Neurology, London, WC1N 3BG, UK.
authors.forename: Elizabeth
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Fisher
authors.affiliation: The London Down Syndrome Consortium (LonDownS), University College London, London, UK; Department of Molecular Neuroscience, University College London Institute of Neurology, London, WC1N 3BG, UK.
authors.forename: John
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Hardy
authors.affiliation: The London Down Syndrome Consortium (LonDownS), University College London, London, UK; The Blizard Institute, Barts & The London School of Medicine, Queen Mary University of London, London, E1 2AT, UK; Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Biopolis, 138673, Singapore.
authors.forename: Dean
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Nizetic
authors.affiliation: The London Down Syndrome Consortium (LonDownS), University College London, London, UK; Francis Crick Institute, London, NW7 1AA, UK; Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, W12 0NN, UK.
authors.forename: Victor
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Tybulewicz
authors.affiliation: The London Down Syndrome Consortium (LonDownS), University College London, London, UK; Division of Psychiatry, University College London, London, W1T 7NF, UK.
authors.forename: Andre
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Strydom
keywords: Alzheimer’s disease; Down syndrome; neurodevelopmental disorder; trisomy 21