title: Renal cell carcinoma: links and risks.
abstract: This review provides an overview of the incidence of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) and a summary of the most commonly associated risk factors. A literature review was performed with a focus on recent studies with a high level of evidence (large prospective cohort studies and meta-analyses). The incidence rate of RCC varies globally, with the rate rising rapidly in more developed regions, demonstrating the effects of increased use of diagnostic imaging and prevalence of modifiable risk factors. Based on the current evidence, cigarette smoking, obesity, and hypertension are the most well-established risk factors for sporadic RCC worldwide. Acquired cystic kidney disease is also a significant risk factor, specifically in dialysis patients. There is increasing evidence for an inverse association between RCC risk and moderate alcohol consumption. Certain analgesics and occupational exposure have been linked to an increased risk of RCC, although data are limited. Diets rich in fruits and vegetables may provide a protective effect.
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, Section of Urology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA.
authors.forename: Reena
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Kabaria
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, Section of Urology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA.
authors.forename: Zachary
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Klaassen
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, Section of Urology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, USA.
authors.forename: Martha K
authors.initials: MK
authors.lastname: Terris
keywords: hypertension; incidence; obesity; renal cell carcinoma; risk factors; smoking