title: Malaria in penguins - current perceptions.
abstract: Avian malaria is a mosquito-borne disease caused by protozoans of the genus Plasmodium, and it is considered one of the most important causes of morbidity and mortality in captive penguins, both in zoological gardens and rehabilitation centres. Penguins are known to be highly susceptible to this disease, and outbreaks have been associated with mortality as high as 50-80% of affected captive populations within a few weeks. The disease has also been reported in wild penguin populations, however, its impacts on the health and fitness of penguins in the wild is not clear. This review provides an overview of the aetiology, life cycle and epidemiology of avian malaria, and provides details on the strategies that can be employed for the diagnostic, treatment and prevention of this disease in captive penguins, discussing possible directions for future research.
authors.affiliation: a Interdisciplinary Centre of Research in Animal Health (CIISA), Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária , Universidade de Lisboa , Lisboa , Portugal.|b Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research , University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation , Buesum , Germany.
authors.forename: M L
authors.initials: ML
authors.lastname: Grilo
authors.affiliation: c Laboratório de Patologia Comparada de Animais Selvagens, Departamento de Patologia, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia , Universidade de São Paulo , São Paulo , Brazil.
authors.forename: R E T
authors.initials: RE
authors.lastname: Vanstreels
authors.affiliation: d Milwaukee County Zoo , Milwaukee , WI , USA.
authors.forename: R
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Wallace
authors.affiliation: e Veterinary Services , Oceanografic Ciudad de las Artes y las Ciencias , Valencia , Spain.
authors.forename: D
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: García-Párraga
authors.affiliation: f Departamento de Parasitologia , Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais , Belo Horizonte , Brazil.
authors.forename: É M
authors.initials: ÉM
authors.lastname: Braga
authors.affiliation: g Anton Vets , Andover , UK.
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Chitty
authors.affiliation: c Laboratório de Patologia Comparada de Animais Selvagens, Departamento de Patologia, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia , Universidade de São Paulo , São Paulo , Brazil.
authors.forename: J L
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Catão-Dias
authors.affiliation: a Interdisciplinary Centre of Research in Animal Health (CIISA), Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária , Universidade de Lisboa , Lisboa , Portugal.
authors.forename: L M
authors.initials: LM
authors.lastname: Madeira de Carvalho
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D008289:Malaria, Avian / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000469:parasitology* / Q000517:prevention & control; D010961:Plasmodium / Q000502:physiology*; D046429:Spheniscidae / Q000469:parasitology*
keywords: Haemosporida; Penguin; diagnosis; malaria; prophylaxis; rehabilitation centres; treatment; zoos