title: Simplified Asset Indices to Measure Wealth and Equity in Health Programs: A Reliability and Validity Analysis Using Survey Data From 16 Countries.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Social franchising programs in low- and middle-income countries have tried using the standard wealth index, based on the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) questionnaire, in client exit interviews to assess clients' relative wealth compared with the national wealth distribution to ensure equity in service delivery. The large number of survey questions required to capture the wealth index variables have proved cumbersome for programs.
  
  
  METHODS
  Using an adaptation of the Delphi method, we developed shortened wealth indices and in February 2015 consulted 15 stakeholders in equity measurement. Together, we selected the best of 5 alternative indices, accompanied by 2 measures of agreement (percent agreement and Cohen's kappa statistic) comparing wealth quintile assignment in the new indices to the full DHS index. The panel agreed that reducing the number of assets was more important than standardization across countries because a short index would provide strong indication of client wealth and be easier to collect and use in the field. Additionally, the panel agreed that the simplified index should be highly correlated with the DHS for each country (kappa ≥ 0.75) for both national and urban-specific samples. We then revised indices for 16 countries and selected the minimum number of questions and question options required to achieve a kappa statistic ≥ 0.75 for both national and urban populations.
  
  
  RESULTS
  After combining the 5 wealth quintiles into 3 groups, which the expert panel deemed more programmatically meaningful, reliability between the standard DHS wealth index and each of 3 simplified indices was high (median kappa = 0.81, 086, and 0.77, respectively, for index B that included only the common questions from the DHS VI questionnaire, index D that included the common questions plus country-specific questions, and index E that found the shortest list of common and country-specific questions that met the minimum reliability criteria of kappa ≥ 0.75). Index E was the simplified index of choice because it was reliable in national and urban contexts while requiring the fewest number of survey questions-6 to 18 per country compared with 25 to 47 in the original DHS wealth index (a 66% average reduction).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Social franchise clinics and other types of service delivery programs that want to assess client wealth in relation to a national or urban population can do so with high reliability using a short questionnaire. Future uses of the simplified asset questionnaire include a mobile application for rapid data collection and analysis.
authors.affiliation: Population Services International, Washington, DC, USA.
authors.forename: Nirali M
authors.initials: NM
authors.lastname: Chakraborty
authors.affiliation: Independent consultant, London, UK.
authors.forename: Kenzo
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Fry
authors.affiliation: University of California, Global Health Group, San Francisco, CA, USA.
authors.forename: Rasika
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Behl
authors.affiliation: Population Services International, Washington, DC, USA.
authors.forename: Kim
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Longfield
mesh_terms: D003710:Demography; D003906:Developing Countries; D005191:Family Characteristics; D019538:Health Care Surveys / Q000191:economics / Q000592:standards*; D000069576:Health Equity; D054625:Healthcare Disparities / Q000191:economics*; D006801:Humans; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012923:Social Class; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors; D054928:Validation Studies as Topic