title: Are there higher pedestrian fatalities in larger cities?: A scaling analysis of 115 to 161 largest cities in the United States.
abstract: In 2012, 4,743 pedestrians were killed in the United States, representing 14% of total traffic fatalities. The number of pedestrians injured was higher at 76,000. Therefore, 36 out of 52 of the largest cities in the United States have adopted a citywide target of reducing pedestrian fatalities. The number of cities adopting the reduction goal during 2011 and 2012 increased rapidly with 8 more cities. We examined the scaling relationship of pedestrian fatality counts as a function of the population size of 115 to 161 large U.S. cities during the period of 1994 to 2011. We also examined the scaling relationship of nonpedestrian and total traffic fatality counts as a function of the population size.
  
  
  
  For the data source of fatality measures we used Traffic Safety Facts Fatality Analysis Reporting System/General Estimates System annual reports published each year from 1994 to 2011 by the NHTSA. Using the data source we conducted both annual cross-sectional and panel data bivariate and multivariate regression models. In the construction of the estimated functional relationship between traffic fatality measures and various factors, we used the simple power function for urban scaling used by Bettencourt et al. ( 2007 , 2010 ) and the refined STIRPAT (stochastic impacts by regression on population, affluence, and technology) model used in Dietz and Rosa ( 1994 , 1997 ) and York et al. ( 2003 ).
  
  
  
  We found that the scaling relationship display diseconomies of scale or sublinear for pedestrian fatalities. However, the relationship displays a superlinear relationship in case of nonpedestrian fatalities. The scaling relationship for total traffic fatality counts display a nearly linear pattern. When the relationship was examined by the 4 subgroups of cities with different population sizes, the most pronounced sublinear scaling relationships for all 3 types of fatality counts was discovered for the subgroup of megacities with a population of more than 1 million.
  
  
  
  The scaling patterns of traffic fatalities of subgroups of cities depend on population sizes of the cities in subgroups. In particular, 9 megacities with populations of more than 1 million are significantly different from the remaining cities and should be viewed as a totally separate group. Thus, analysis of the patterns of traffic fatalities needs to be conducted within the group of megacities separately from the other cities with smaller population sizes for devising prevention policies to reduce traffic fatalities in both megacities and smaller cities.
authors.affiliation: a College of Business Administration, Department of Global Business Administration , Gachon University , Seong Nam , Republic of Korea.|b Gachon Center for Convergence Research , Gachon University , Seong Nam , Republic of Korea.
authors.forename: Yu Sang
authors.initials: YS
authors.lastname: Chang
authors.affiliation: b Gachon Center for Convergence Research , Gachon University , Seong Nam , Republic of Korea.|c College of Social Science, Department of Health Care Management , Gachon University , Seong Nam , Republic of Korea.
authors.forename: Won Jae
authors.initials: WJ
authors.lastname: Lee
authors.affiliation: b Gachon Center for Convergence Research , Gachon University , Seong Nam , Republic of Korea.|c College of Social Science, Department of Health Care Management , Gachon University , Seong Nam , Republic of Korea.
authors.forename: Jae Hee
authors.initials: JH
authors.lastname: Lee
mesh_terms: D000063:Accidents, Traffic / Q000401:mortality*; D002947:Cities / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D006801:Humans; D000069636:Pedestrians; D011156:Population Density; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology; D016138:Walking / Q000293:injuries*
keywords: Pedestrian traffic fatality; nonpedestrian traffic fatality; population size of cities; subgroups of cities; total traffic fatality