title: Primary squamous cell carcinoma of the rectum: An update and implications for treatment.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To provide an update on the aetiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, staging and management of rectal squamous cell carcinoma (SCC).
  
  
  METHODS
  A systematic review was conducted according to the preferred reporting items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. A comprehensive search of Ovid MEDLINE was performed with the reference list of selected articles reviewed to ensure all relevant publications were captured. The search strategy was limited to the English language, spanning from 1946 to 2015. A qualitative analysis was undertaken examining patient demographics, clinical presentation, diagnosis, staging, treatment and outcome. The quantitaive analysis was limited to data extracted on treatment and outcomes including radiological, clinical and pathological complete response where available. The narrative and quantitative review were synthesised in concert.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The search identified 487 articles in total with 79 included in the qualitative review. The quantitative analysis involved 63 articles, consisting of 43 case reports and 20 case series with a total of 142 individual cases. The underlying pathogenesis of rectal SCC while unclear, continues to be defined, with increasing evidence of a metaplasia-dysplasia-carcinoma sequence and a possible role for human papilloma virus in this progression. The presentation is similar to rectal adenocarcinoma, with a diagnosis confirmed by endoscopic biopsy. Many presumed rectal SCC's are in fact an extension of an anal SCC, and cytokeratin markers are a useful adjunct in this distinction. Staging is most accurately reflected by the tumour-node-metastasis classification for rectal adenocarcinoma. It involves examining locoregional disease by way of magnetic resonance imaging and/or endorectal ultrasound, with systemic spread excluded by way of computed tomography. Positron emission tomography is integral in the workup to exclude an external site of primary SCC with metastasis to the rectum. While the optimal treatment remains as yet undefined, recent studies have demonstrated a global shift away from surgery towards definitive chemoradiotherapy as primary treatment. Pooled overall survival was calculated to be 86% in patients managed with chemoradiation compared with 48% for those treated traditionally with surgery. Furthermore, local recurrence and metastatic rates were 25% vs 10% and 30% vs 13% for the chemoradiation vs conventional treatment cohorts.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The changing paradigm in the treatment of rectal SCC holds great promise for improved outcomes in this rare disease.
authors.affiliation: Glen R Guerra, Cherng H Kong, Satish K Warrier, Andrew C Lynch, Alexander G Heriot, Division of Cancer Surgery, Sir Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, University of Melbourne, East Melbourne, Victoria 3002, Australia.
authors.forename: Glen R
authors.initials: GR
authors.lastname: Guerra
authors.affiliation: Glen R Guerra, Cherng H Kong, Satish K Warrier, Andrew C Lynch, Alexander G Heriot, Division of Cancer Surgery, Sir Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, University of Melbourne, East Melbourne, Victoria 3002, Australia.
authors.forename: Cherng H
authors.initials: CH
authors.lastname: Kong
authors.affiliation: Glen R Guerra, Cherng H Kong, Satish K Warrier, Andrew C Lynch, Alexander G Heriot, Division of Cancer Surgery, Sir Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, University of Melbourne, East Melbourne, Victoria 3002, Australia.
authors.forename: Satish K
authors.initials: SK
authors.lastname: Warrier
authors.affiliation: Glen R Guerra, Cherng H Kong, Satish K Warrier, Andrew C Lynch, Alexander G Heriot, Division of Cancer Surgery, Sir Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, University of Melbourne, East Melbourne, Victoria 3002, Australia.
authors.forename: Andrew C
authors.initials: AC
authors.lastname: Lynch
authors.affiliation: Glen R Guerra, Cherng H Kong, Satish K Warrier, Andrew C Lynch, Alexander G Heriot, Division of Cancer Surgery, Sir Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, University of Melbourne, East Melbourne, Victoria 3002, Australia.
authors.forename: Alexander G
authors.initials: AG
authors.lastname: Heriot
authors.affiliation: Glen R Guerra, Cherng H Kong, Satish K Warrier, Andrew C Lynch, Alexander G Heriot, Division of Cancer Surgery, Sir Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, University of Melbourne, East Melbourne, Victoria 3002, Australia.
authors.forename: Samuel Y
authors.initials: SY
authors.lastname: Ngan
keywords: Chemoradiotherapy; Complete response; Rectal cancer; Squamous cell carcinoma; Surgery