title: Cohort profile: the German Diabetes Study (GDS).
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The German Diabetes Study (GDS) is a prospective longitudinal cohort study describing the impact of subphenotypes on the course of the disease. GDS aims at identifying prognostic factors and mechanisms underlying the development of related comorbidities.
  
  
  METHODS
  The study comprises intensive phenotyping within 12 months after clinical diagnosis, at 5-year intervals for 20 years and annual telephone interviews in between. Dynamic tests, including glucagon, mixed meal, intravenous glucose tolerance and hyperinsulinemic clamp tests, serve to assess beta-cell function and tissue-specific insulin sensitivity. Magnetic resonance imaging and multinuclei spectroscopy allow quantifying whole-body fat distribution, tissue-specific lipid deposition and energy metabolism. Comprehensive analyses of microvascular (nerve, eye, kidney) and macrovascular (endothelial, cardiorespiratory) morphology and function enable identification and monitoring of comorbidities. The GDS biobank stores specimens from blood, stool, skeletal muscle, subcutaneous adipose tissue and skin for future analyses including multiomics, expression profiles and histology. Repeated questionnaires on socioeconomic conditions, patient-reported outcomes as quality of life, health-related behavior as physical activity and nutritional habits are a specific asset of GDS. This study will recruit 3000 patients and a group of humans without familiy history of diabetes. 237 type 1 and 456 type 2 diabetes patients have been already included.
authors.affiliation: Institute for Clinical Diabetology, Leibniz Institute for Diabetes Research, German Diabetes Center at Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany.|German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), München-Neuherberg, Germany.|Department of Endocrinology and Diabetology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany.
authors.forename: Julia
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Szendroedi
authors.affiliation: Institute for Clinical Diabetology, Leibniz Institute for Diabetes Research, German Diabetes Center at Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany.|German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), München-Neuherberg, Germany.|Department of Endocrinology and Diabetology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany.
authors.forename: Aaruni
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Saxena
authors.affiliation: Institute for Clinical Diabetology, Leibniz Institute for Diabetes Research, German Diabetes Center at Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany.|German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), München-Neuherberg, Germany.
authors.forename: Katharina S
authors.initials: KS
authors.lastname: Weber
authors.affiliation: German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), München-Neuherberg, Germany.|Institute for Biometrics and Epidemiology, Leibniz Institute for Diabetes Research, German Diabetes Center at Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany.
authors.forename: Klaus
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Strassburger
authors.affiliation: Institute for Clinical Diabetology, Leibniz Institute for Diabetes Research, German Diabetes Center at Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany.|German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), München-Neuherberg, Germany.
authors.forename: Christian
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Herder
authors.affiliation: Institute for Clinical Diabetology, Leibniz Institute for Diabetes Research, German Diabetes Center at Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany.|German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), München-Neuherberg, Germany.
authors.forename: Volker
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Burkart
authors.affiliation: Institute for Clinical Diabetology, Leibniz Institute for Diabetes Research, German Diabetes Center at Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany.|German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), München-Neuherberg, Germany.
authors.forename: Bettina
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Nowotny
authors.affiliation: German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), München-Neuherberg, Germany.|Institute for Biometrics and Epidemiology, Leibniz Institute for Diabetes Research, German Diabetes Center at Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany.|Public Health Unit, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany.
authors.forename: Andrea
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Icks
authors.affiliation: German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), München-Neuherberg, Germany.|Institute for Biometrics and Epidemiology, Leibniz Institute for Diabetes Research, German Diabetes Center at Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany.
authors.forename: Oliver
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Kuss
authors.affiliation: Institute for Clinical Diabetology, Leibniz Institute for Diabetes Research, German Diabetes Center at Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany.|German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), München-Neuherberg, Germany.|Department of Endocrinology and Diabetology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany.
authors.forename: Dan
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Ziegler
authors.affiliation: German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), München-Neuherberg, Germany.|Institute for Clinical Biochemistry and Pathobiochemistry German Diabetes Center, Leibniz Institute for Diabetes Research, Düsseldorf, Germany.
authors.forename: Hadi
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Al-Hasani
authors.affiliation: Institute for Clinical Diabetology, Leibniz Institute for Diabetes Research, German Diabetes Center at Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany.|German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), München-Neuherberg, Germany.|Department of Endocrinology and Diabetology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany.
authors.forename: Karsten
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Müssig
authors.affiliation: Institute for Clinical Diabetology, Leibniz Institute for Diabetes Research, German Diabetes Center at Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany. Michael.Roden@ddz.uni-duesseldorf.de.|German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), München-Neuherberg, Germany. Michael.Roden@ddz.uni-duesseldorf.de.|Department of Endocrinology and Diabetology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany. Michael.Roden@ddz.uni-duesseldorf.de.
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Roden
mesh_terms: D000273:Adipose Tissue / Q000378:metabolism; D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D001786:Blood Glucose / Q000032:analysis / Q000378:metabolism; D050218:Body Fat Distribution / Q000379:methods; D015331:Cohort Studies; D003922:Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1 / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000235:genetics / Q000628:therapy*; D003924:Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000235:genetics / Q000628:therapy*; D005260:Female; D005858:Germany; D005951:Glucose Tolerance Test / Q000379:methods; D006801:Humans; D007333:Insulin Resistance / Q000502:physiology*; D009682:Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy / Q000379:methods; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D018482:Muscle, Skeletal / Q000378:metabolism*; D011446:Prospective Studies; D011788:Quality of Life; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D001786:Blood Glucose
keywords: Beta cell function; Diabetes comorbidities; Insulin resistance; Magnetic resonance spectroscopy; Metabolic phenotyping