title: Vitamin D status among indigenous Mayan (Kekchi) and Afro-Caribe (Garifuna) adolescents from Guatemala: a comparative description between two ethnic groups residing on the Rio Dulce at the Caribbean coast in Izabal Province, Guatemala.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To assess vitamin D status and the influence of risk factors such as skin pigmentation and time spent outdoors on hypovitaminosis D among Guatemalan Kekchi and Garifuna adolescents.
  
  
  METHODS
  Cross-sectional study, with convenient sampling design. Blood samples, anthropometric and behavioural data were all collected during the dry season. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) concentrations were measured by RIA.
  
  
  METHODS
  Communities of Rio Dulce and Livingston, Izabal Province, Caribbean coast of Guatemala, with latitude and longitude of 15°49'N and 88°45'W for Livingston and 15°46'N and 88°49'W for Rio Dulce, respectively.
  
  
  METHODS
  Eighty-six adolescents, divided evenly by sex and ethnicity, with mean age of 14 years.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Mean (sd) 25(OH)D value was 27·8 (7·2) ng/ml for the total group, with 25·8 (5·9) and 29·8 (7·9) ng/ml, respectively, in Kekchis and Garifunas (P=0·01). Use of vitamin D supplementation, clothing practices and sun protection were not statistically different between groups. Skin area exposed on the day of data collection ranged from 20·0 % minimum to 49·4 % maximum, with mean (sd) exposure of 32·0 (8.5) %. With univariate regression analysis, age (P=0·034), sex (P=0·044), ethnicity (P=0·010), time spent outdoors (P=0·006) and percentage skin area exposed (P=0·001) were predictive. However, multivariate analysis indicated that only sex (P=0·034) and percentage skin area exposed (P=0·044) remained as predictors of 25(OH)D.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Despite residing in an optimal geographic location for sunlight exposure, nearly 65 % of study adolescents were either insufficient or deficient in vitamin D. Correction and long-term prevention of this nutritional problem may be instrumental in avoiding adverse effects in adulthood attributed to low 25(OH)D during adolescence.
authors.affiliation: 1Department of Public Health and Community Medicine,Tufts University School of Medicine,Boston,MA 02111,USA.
authors.forename: Ali
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Naqvi
authors.affiliation: 2Center for the Studies of Sensory Impairment,Aging and Metabolism,Guatemala City,Guatemala.
authors.forename: Noel W
authors.initials: NW
authors.lastname: Solomons
authors.affiliation: 2Center for the Studies of Sensory Impairment,Aging and Metabolism,Guatemala City,Guatemala.
authors.forename: Raquel
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Campos
authors.affiliation: 2Center for the Studies of Sensory Impairment,Aging and Metabolism,Guatemala City,Guatemala.
authors.forename: María José
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Soto-Méndez
authors.affiliation: 2Center for the Studies of Sensory Impairment,Aging and Metabolism,Guatemala City,Guatemala.
authors.forename: Emily
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Caplan
authors.affiliation: 3Creighton University Osteoporosis Research Center,Omaha,NE,USA.
authors.forename: Laura
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Armas
authors.affiliation: 1Department of Public Health and Community Medicine,Tufts University School of Medicine,Boston,MA 02111,USA.
authors.forename: Odilia I
authors.initials: OI
authors.lastname: Bermudez
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D017691:Caribbean Region; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D005006:Ethnicity / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D005260:Female; D006166:Guatemala; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D009749:Nutrition Surveys / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D012307:Risk Factors; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D014807:Vitamin D / Q000031:analogs & derivatives / Q000097:blood*
chemical_list: D014807:Vitamin D; C104450:25-hydroxyvitamin D
keywords: Adolescents; Guatemala; Skin pigmentation; Sunlight exposure; Vitamin D