title: One for all and all for one: Linear regression from the mass of individual bones to assess human skeletal mass completeness.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Complete and accurate human skeletal inventory is seldom possible in archaeological and forensic cases involving severe fragmentation. In such cases, skeletal mass comparisons with published references may be used as an alternative to assess skeletal completeness but they are too general for a case-by-case routine analysis. The objective is to solve this issue by creating linear regression equations to estimate the total mass of a skeleton based on the mass of individual bones.
  
  
  METHODS
  Total adult skeletal mass and individual mass of the clavicle, humerus, femur, patella, carpal, metacarpal, tarsal, and metatarsal bones were recorded in a sample of 60 skeletons from the 21st century identified skeletal collection (University of Coimbra). The sample included 32 females and 28 males with ages ranging from 31 to 96 years (mean = 76.4; sd = 14.8). Skeletal mass linear regression equations were calculated based on this sample.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The mass of individual bones was successfully used to predict the approximate total mass of the adult skeleton. The femur, humerus, and second metacarpal were the best predictors of total skeletal mass with root mean squared errors ranging from 292.9 to 346.1 g.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Linear regression was relatively successful at estimating adult skeletal mass. The non-normal distribution of the sample in terms of mass may have reduced the predictive power of the equations. These results have clear impact for bioanthropology, especially forensic anthropology, since this method may provide better estimates of the completeness of the skeleton or the minimum number of individuals. Am J Phys Anthropol 160:427-432, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
authors.affiliation: Research Centre for Anthropology and Health (CIAS), Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim Freitas, Coimbra, 3000-456, Portugal.|Archaeosciences Laboratory, Directorate General for Cultural Heritage and LARC/CIBIO/InBIO, Rua da Bica do Marquês 2, Lisboa, 1300-087, Portugal.|Centre for Functional Ecology, Laboratory of Forensic Anthropology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim Freitas, Coimbra, 3000-456, Portugal.
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Gonçalves
authors.affiliation: Centre for Functional Ecology, Laboratory of Forensic Anthropology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim Freitas, Coimbra, 3000-456, Portugal.
authors.forename: João
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: d'Oliveira Coelho
authors.affiliation: Centre for Functional Ecology, Laboratory of Forensic Anthropology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim Freitas, Coimbra, 3000-456, Portugal.
authors.forename: Maria A
authors.initials: MA
authors.lastname: Acosta
authors.affiliation: Centre for Functional Ecology, Laboratory of Forensic Anthropology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim Freitas, Coimbra, 3000-456, Portugal.
authors.forename: Catarina
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Coelho
authors.affiliation: Research Centre for Anthropology and Health (CIAS), Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim Freitas, Coimbra, 3000-456, Portugal.|Interdisciplinary Center for Archaeology and Evolution of Human Behavior, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal.
authors.forename: Francisco
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Curate
authors.affiliation: Research Centre for Anthropology and Health (CIAS), Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim Freitas, Coimbra, 3000-456, Portugal.|Centre for Functional Ecology, Laboratory of Forensic Anthropology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim Freitas, Coimbra, 3000-456, Portugal.|Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim Freitas, Coimbra, 3000-456, Portugal.
authors.forename: Maria Teresa
authors.initials: MT
authors.lastname: Ferreira
authors.affiliation: Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim Freitas, Coimbra, 3000-456, Portugal.
authors.forename: Márcia
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Gouveia
authors.affiliation: Centre for Functional Ecology, Laboratory of Forensic Anthropology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim Freitas, Coimbra, 3000-456, Portugal.
authors.forename: Calil
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Makhoul
authors.affiliation: Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim Freitas, Coimbra, 3000-456, Portugal.
authors.forename: Débora
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Pinto
authors.affiliation: Centre for Functional Ecology, Laboratory of Forensic Anthropology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim Freitas, Coimbra, 3000-456, Portugal.
authors.forename: Inês
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Oliveira-Santos
authors.affiliation: Centre for Functional Ecology, Laboratory of Forensic Anthropology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim Freitas, Coimbra, 3000-456, Portugal.
authors.forename: Ana R
authors.initials: AR
authors.lastname: Vassalo
authors.affiliation: Centre for Functional Ecology, Laboratory of Forensic Anthropology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim Freitas, Coimbra, 3000-456, Portugal.
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Navega
authors.affiliation: Centre for Functional Ecology, Laboratory of Forensic Anthropology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim Freitas, Coimbra, 3000-456, Portugal.|Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim Freitas, Coimbra, 3000-456, Portugal.
authors.forename: Eugénia
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Cunha
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D000885:Anthropology, Physical; D001842:Bone and Bones / Q000033:anatomy & histology* / Q000502:physiology*; D005260:Female; D018732:Forensic Anthropology / Q000379:methods*; D006801:Humans; D016014:Linear Models; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009929:Organ Size / Q000502:physiology; D012863:Skeleton / Q000033:anatomy & histology* / Q000502:physiology*
keywords: bioarchaeology; bone mass; forensic anthropology; funerary practice; scattered remains