title: Recent advances and current state of immunotherapy in systemic lupus erythematosus.
abstract: Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune syndrome that poses significant challenges in diagnosis and treatment. Dysregulated innate and adaptive immune systems are involved in its pathogenesis. A plethora of novel immunotherapies have been developed for the treatment of SLE but many have failed early clinical trials.
  
  
  
  This review summarizes immunotherapies under recent development with relevance to the targeted cellular or soluble factors involved in the pathogenesis of SLE.
  
  
  
  SLE is a complicated disease with much heterogeneity. Novel immunotherapies with different mechanisms of action that are currently under development include biologic agents targeting co-stimulatory molecules, cytokines or their receptors and signaling molecules and B cells, cell-based therapy and peptide therapy. Together with good scientific rationale and advanced biological engineering techniques, optimization of clinical trial design, patient selection and disease outcome measures are essential to demonstrate the clinical efficacy and safety of these agents.
authors.affiliation: a Division of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, Department of Medicine , University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong.
authors.forename: Mo Yin
authors.initials: MY
authors.lastname: Mok
authors.affiliation: b Zabludowicz Center for Autoimmune Diseases, Sheba Medical Center , Tel-Aviv University , Tel-Aviv , Israel.
authors.forename: Yehuda
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Shoenfeld
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000911:Antibodies, Monoclonal / Q000494:pharmacology / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D001402:B-Lymphocytes / Q000187:drug effects / Q000276:immunology; D002986:Clinical Trials as Topic / Q000379:methods; D016207:Cytokines / Q000494:pharmacology / Q000627:therapeutic use; D006801:Humans; D007167:Immunotherapy / Q000379:methods* / Q000639:trends; D008180:Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000276:immunology*; D010455:Peptides / Q000494:pharmacology / Q000627:therapeutic use
chemical_list: D000911:Antibodies, Monoclonal; D016207:Cytokines; D010455:Peptides
keywords: Clinical trial; immunotherapy; lupus nephritis; systemic lupus erythematosus