title: Prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp., Enterocytozoon bieneusi, Encephalitozoon spp. and Giardia intestinalis in Wild, Semi-Wild and Captive Orangutans (Pongo abelii and Pongo pygmaeus) on Sumatra and Borneo, Indonesia.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Orangutans are critically endangered primarily due to loss and fragmentation of their natural habitat. This could bring them into closer contact with humans and increase the risk of zoonotic pathogen transmission.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To describe the prevalence and diversity of Cryptosporidium spp., microsporidia and Giardia intestinalis in orangutans at seven sites on Sumatra and Kalimantan, and to evaluate the impact of orangutans' habituation and location on the occurrence of these zoonotic protists.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The overall prevalence of parasites in 298 examined animals was 11.1%. The most prevalent microsporidia was Encephalitozoon cuniculi genotype II, found in 21 animals (7.0%). Enterocytozoon bieneusi genotype D (n = 5) and novel genotype Pongo 2 were detected only in six individuals (2.0%). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of these parasites in orangutans. Eight animals were positive for Cryptosporidium spp. (2.7%), including C. parvum (n = 2) and C. muris (n = 6). Giardia intestinalis assemblage B, subtype MB6, was identified in a single individual. While no significant differences between the different human contact level groups (p = 0.479-0.670) or between the different islands (p = 0.992) were reported in case of E. bieneusi or E. cuniculi, Cryptosporidium spp. was significantly less frequently detected in wild individuals (p < 2×10-16) and was significantly more prevalent in orangutans on Kalimantan than on Sumatra (p < 2×10-16).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our results revealed that wild orangutans are significantly less frequently infected by Cryptosporidium spp. than captive and semi-wild animals. In addition, this parasite was more frequently detected at localities on Kalimantan. In contrast, we did not detect any significant difference in the prevalence of microsporidia between the studied groups of animals. The sources and transmission modes of infections were not determined, as this would require repeated sampling of individuals, examination of water sources, and sampling of humans and animals sharing the habitat with orangutans.
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.|Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.
authors.forename: Anna
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Mynářová
authors.affiliation: Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.|UMI - Saving of Pongidae Foundation, Brno, Czech Republic.
authors.forename: Ivona
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Foitová
authors.affiliation: Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.|Faculty of Agriculture, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.
authors.forename: Martin
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Kváč
authors.affiliation: Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.
authors.forename: Dana
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Květoňová
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Economics, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Rost
authors.affiliation: Outrop, The Orangutan Tropical Peatland Project, Sabangau, Indonesia.
authors.forename: Helen
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Morrogh-Bernard
authors.affiliation: Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
authors.forename: Wisnu
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Nurcahyo
authors.affiliation: UMI - Saving of Pongidae Foundation, Brno, Czech Republic.
authors.forename: Cathleen
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Nguyen
authors.affiliation: University of West Nusa Tenggara (UNTB), Mataram, Indonesia.
authors.forename: Supriyadi
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Supriyadi
authors.affiliation: Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.
authors.forename: Bohumil
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Sak
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D018420:Ape Diseases / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000469:parasitology / Q000635:transmission; D001893:Borneo / Q000453:epidemiology; D003458:Cryptosporidium; D016819:Encephalitozoon; D021862:Enterocytozoon; D016829:Giardia lamblia; D006801:Humans; D007214:Indonesia / Q000453:epidemiology; D007411:Intestinal Diseases, Parasitic / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000469:parasitology / Q000635:transmission; D057080:Pongo abelii / Q000469:parasitology*; D011148:Pongo pygmaeus / Q000469:parasitology*; D015995:Prevalence; D011529:Protozoan Infections, Animal / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000469:parasitology / Q000635:transmission