title: Opening the "White Box" in Tissue Engineering: Visualization of Cell Aggregates in Optically Scattering Scaffolds.
abstract: The noninvasive and longitudinal imaging of cells or cell aggregates in large optically scattering scaffolds is still a largely unresolved problem in tissue engineering. In this work, we investigated the potential of near-infrared (NIR) photoacoustic (PA) tomography imaging to address this issue. We used clinically relevant sizes of highly light scattering polyethersulfone multibore(®) hollow fiber scaffolds seeded with cells. Since cells have little optical absorption at NIR wavelengths, we studied labeling of cells with absorbers. Four NIR labels were examined for their suitability based on absorption characteristics, resistance to bleaching, and influence on cell viability. On the basis of these criteria, carbon nanoparticles proved most suitable in a variety of cells. For PA imaging, we used a research setup, based on computed tomography geometry. As proof of principle, using this imager we monitored the distribution and clustering of labeled rat insulinoma beta cell aggregates in the scaffolds. This was performed for the duration of 1 week in a nondestructive manner. The results were validated using fluorescence imaging, histology, and light microscopy imaging. Based on our findings, we conclude that PA tomography is a powerful tool for the nondestructive imaging of cells in optically scattering tissue-engineered scaffolds.
authors.affiliation: 1 Developmental Bioengineering, MIRA Institute of Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente , Enschede, The Netherlands .
authors.forename: Milou
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Groot Nibbelink
authors.affiliation: 2 Biomedical Photonic Imaging, MIRA Institute of Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente , Enschede, The Netherlands .
authors.forename: Khalid
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Daoudi
authors.affiliation: 2 Biomedical Photonic Imaging, MIRA Institute of Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente , Enschede, The Netherlands .|3 Albert Schweitzer Hospital , Dordrecht, The Netherlands .
authors.forename: Sanne
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Slegers
authors.affiliation: 2 Biomedical Photonic Imaging, MIRA Institute of Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente , Enschede, The Netherlands .
authors.forename: Diederik
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Grootendorst
authors.affiliation: 2 Biomedical Photonic Imaging, MIRA Institute of Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente , Enschede, The Netherlands .
authors.forename: Maura
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Dantuma
authors.affiliation: 2 Biomedical Photonic Imaging, MIRA Institute of Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente , Enschede, The Netherlands .
authors.forename: Wiendelt
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Steenbergen
authors.affiliation: 1 Developmental Bioengineering, MIRA Institute of Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente , Enschede, The Netherlands .
authors.forename: Marcel
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Karperien
authors.affiliation: 2 Biomedical Photonic Imaging, MIRA Institute of Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente , Enschede, The Netherlands .
authors.forename: Srirang
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Manohar
authors.affiliation: 1 Developmental Bioengineering, MIRA Institute of Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente , Enschede, The Netherlands .
authors.forename: Aart
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: van Apeldoorn
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D002417:Cattle; D002449:Cell Aggregation; D002470:Cell Survival; D002478:Cells, Cultured; D019902:Chondrocytes / Q000166:cytology*; D005336:Fiber Optic Technology / Q000379:methods*; D007091:Image Processing, Computer-Assisted / Q000379:methods*; D007340:Insulinoma / Q000473:pathology*; D061848:Optical Imaging / Q000379:methods*; D051381:Rats; D023822:Tissue Engineering / Q000379:methods*; D054457:Tissue Scaffolds