title: Alcohol, Methamphetamine, and Marijuana Exposure Have Distinct Effects on the Human Placenta.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Animal studies have demonstrated adverse effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on placental development, but few studies have examined these effects in humans. Little is known about effects of prenatal exposure to methamphetamine, marijuana, and cigarette smoking on placental development.
  
  
  METHODS
  Placentas were collected from 103 Cape Coloured (mixed ancestry) pregnant women recruited at their first antenatal clinic visit in Cape Town, South Africa. Sixty-six heavy drinkers and 37 nondrinkers were interviewed about their alcohol, cigarette smoking, and drug use at 3 antenatal visits. A senior pathologist, blinded to exposure status, performed comprehensive pathology examinations on each placenta using a standardized protocol. In multivariable regression models, effects of prenatal exposure were examined on placental size, structure, and presence of infections and meconium.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Drinkers reported a binge pattern of heavy drinking, averaging 8.0 drinks/occasion across pregnancy on 1.4 d/wk. 79.6% smoked cigarettes; 22.3% used marijuana; and 17.5% used methamphetamine. Alcohol exposure was related to decreased placental weight and a smaller placenta-to-birthweight ratio. By contrast, methamphetamine was associated with larger placental weight and a larger placenta-to-birthweight ratio. Marijuana was also associated with larger placental weight. Alcohol exposure was associated with increased risk of placental hemorrhage. Prenatal alcohol, drug, and cigarette use were not associated with chorioamnionitis, villitis, deciduitis, or maternal vascular underperfusion. Alcohol and cigarette smoking were associated with a decreased risk of intrauterine passing of meconium, a sign of acute fetal stress and/or hypoxia; methamphetamine, with an increased risk.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This is the first human study to show that alcohol, methamphetamine, and marijuana were associated with distinct patterns of pathology, suggesting different mechanisms mediating their effects on placental development. Given the growing body of evidence linking placental abnormalities to neurodevelopmental deficits, these findings may be important in the long-term teratogenic effects of prenatal alcohol and drug exposure.
authors.affiliation: Division of Pediatric Emergency Medicine, Morgan Stanley Children's Hospital of New York, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York.
authors.forename: R Colin
authors.initials: RC
authors.lastname: Carter
authors.affiliation: Department of Pathology (National Health Laboratory Service), University of Cape Town Faculty of Health Sciences, Cape Town, South Africa.
authors.forename: Helen
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Wainwright
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, University of Cape Town Faculty of Health Sciences, Cape Town, South Africa.
authors.forename: Christopher D
authors.initials: CD
authors.lastname: Molteno
authors.affiliation: Division of Neonatology, University of Minnesota School of Medicine, Minneapolis, Minnesota.
authors.forename: Michael K
authors.initials: MK
authors.lastname: Georgieff
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan.
authors.forename: Neil C
authors.initials: NC
authors.lastname: Dodge
authors.affiliation: Department of Human Biology, University of Cape Town Faculty of Health Sciences, Cape Town, South Africa.
authors.forename: Fleur
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Warton
authors.affiliation: Department of Human Biology, University of Cape Town Faculty of Health Sciences, Cape Town, South Africa.
authors.forename: Ernesta M
authors.initials: EM
authors.lastname: Meintjes
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, University of Cape Town Faculty of Health Sciences, Cape Town, South Africa.|Department of Human Biology, University of Cape Town Faculty of Health Sciences, Cape Town, South Africa.|Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan.
authors.forename: Joseph L
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Jacobson
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, University of Cape Town Faculty of Health Sciences, Cape Town, South Africa.|Department of Human Biology, University of Cape Town Faculty of Health Sciences, Cape Town, South Africa.|Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan.
authors.forename: Sandra W
authors.initials: SW
authors.lastname: Jacobson
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000428:Alcohol Drinking / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000473:pathology; D000431:Ethanol / Q000009:adverse effects; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008385:Marijuana Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000473:pathology; D008694:Methamphetamine / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000009:adverse effects*; D010920:Placenta / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000473:pathology; D011247:Pregnancy; D011297:Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects / Q000139:chemically induced* / Q000473:pathology; D011446:Prospective Studies; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000473:pathology; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D000431:Ethanol; D008694:Methamphetamine
keywords: Cigarette Smoking; Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders; Marijuana; Methamphetamine; Placenta