title: Xenomonitoring of sleeping sickness transmission in Campo (Cameroon).
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The sleeping sickness focus of Campo in South Cameroon is still active, at a low endemic level, for more than a century, despite a regular medical surveillance. The present study focuses on the spatial distribution of xenomonitoring information obtained from an entomological survey performed in the dry season 2012. It appears that humans constitute a third of the blood meals and that the flies' densities were coherent with those classically observed in the different biotopes. Paradoxically, the epicenter of the focus is the place where the risk indicators are the lowest ones.
  
  
  METHODS
  Particular attention was paid to the entomological device so that it covered the main part of human activities in the study area. One hundred and sixty-two pyramidal traps were used to catch tsetse flies twice a day that were identified, counted, dissected. Molecular analysis using classical and specific molecular markers was conducted to determine the importance of trypanosome infections and the nature of the feeding hosts. This information was used to calculate a Transmission Risk Index and to define a gradient of risk that was projected into a Geographical Information System.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Conventional entomological indicators such as species identification of tsetse flies or the Apparent Density per Trap per day, show that Glossina palpalis palpalis is the main species in the campo area which is classically distributed into the different biotopes of the study area. Molecular analysis reveals that humans constitute a third of the blood feeding hosts and that 20 % of the dissected flies were infected with trypanosomes, principally with Nannomonas. Nevertheless, one fly was carrying Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, the pathogen agent of sleeping sickness, showing that the reservoir is still active in the epicenter of the focus. Paradoxically, the Transmission Risk Index is not important in the epicenter, demonstrating that endemic events are not only depending on the man/vector contact.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Xenomonitoring provides a valuable guide/tool to determine places at higher risk for vector/human contact and to identify trypanosomes species circulating in the focus. This information from xenomonitoring demonstrates that decision makers should include a veterinary device in a control strategy.
authors.affiliation: UMR177 IRD/CIRAD INTERTRYP, TA A17 G, Campus International de Baillarguet, 34398, Montpellier cedex 5, France. pascal.grebaut@ird.fr.
authors.forename: Pascal
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Grébaut
authors.affiliation: Department of Animal Biology and Physiology, Parasitology and Ecology Laboratory, Faculty of Science, University of Yaoundé I, P.O. Box 812, Yaoundé, Cameroon.
authors.forename: Trésor
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Melachio
authors.affiliation: Programme National de Lutte contre la Trypanosomiase Humaine Africaine, Ministry of Health, Yaoundé, Cameroon.
authors.forename: Simplice
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Nyangmang
authors.affiliation: Programme National de Lutte contre la Trypanosomiase Humaine Africaine, Ministry of Health, Yaoundé, Cameroon.
authors.forename: Vincent Ebo'o
authors.initials: VE
authors.lastname: Eyenga
authors.affiliation: Center for Research on Filariasis and other Tropical Diseases, P.O. Box 5797, Yaoundé, Cameroon.
authors.forename: Guy-Roger
authors.initials: GR
authors.lastname: Njitchouang
authors.affiliation: Molecular Parasitology and Entomology Unit, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Dschang, P.O. Box 67, Dschang, Cameroon.
authors.forename: Elvis
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Ofon
authors.affiliation: Department of Animal Biology and Physiology, Parasitology and Ecology Laboratory, Faculty of Science, University of Yaoundé I, P.O. Box 812, Yaoundé, Cameroon.
authors.forename: Flobert
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Njiokou
authors.affiliation: Molecular Parasitology and Entomology Unit, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Dschang, P.O. Box 67, Dschang, Cameroon.
authors.forename: Gustave
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Simo
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D002163:Cameroon / Q000453:epidemiology; D018562:Disease Transmission, Infectious; D005247:Feeding Behavior; D006801:Humans; D014345:Trypanosoma / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D014347:Trypanosoma brucei gambiense / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D014353:Trypanosomiasis, African / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000635:transmission*; D014370:Tsetse Flies / Q000145:classification / Q000469:parasitology / Q000502:physiology*
keywords: Glossina; Human African trypanosomiasis; Risk; Transmission; Xenomonitoring