title: Pathophysiology of valvular heart disease.
abstract: Valvular heart disease (VHD) is caused by either damage or defect in one of the four heart valves, aortic, mitral, tricuspid or pulmonary. Defects in these valves can be congenital or acquired. Age, gender, tobacco use, hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, and type II diabetes contribute to the risk of disease. VHD is an escalating health issue with a prevalence of 2.5% in the United States alone. Considering the likely increase of the aging population worldwide, the incidence of acquired VHD is expected to increase. Technological advances are instrumental in identifying congenital heart defects in infants, thereby adding to the growing VHD population. Almost one-third of elderly individuals have echocardiographic or radiological evidence of calcific aortic valve (CAV) sclerosis, an early and subclinical form of CAV disease (CAVD). Of individuals ages >60, ~2% suffer from disease progression to its most severe form, calcific aortic stenosis. Surgical intervention is therefore required in these patients as no effective pharmacotherapies exist. Valvular calcium load and valve biomineralization are orchestrated by the concerted action of diverse cell-dependent mechanisms. Signaling pathways important in skeletal morphogenesis are also involved in the regulation of cardiac valve morphogenesis, CAVD and the pathobiology of cardiovascular calcification. CAVD usually occurs without any obvious symptoms in early stages over a long period of time and symptoms are identified at advanced stages of the disease, leading to a high rate of mortality. Aortic valve replacement is the only primary treatment of choice. Biomarkers such as asymmetric dimethylarginine, fetuin-A, calcium phosphate product, natriuretic peptides and osteopontin have been useful in improving outcomes among various disease states. This review, highlights the current understanding of the biology of VHD, with particular reference to molecular and cellular aspects of its regulation. Current clinical questions and the development of new strategies to treat various forms of VHD medically were addressed.
authors.affiliation: Xuzhou Clinical Medical College of Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221009, P.R. China.
authors.forename: Y I
authors.initials: YI
authors.lastname: Zeng
authors.affiliation: Xuzhou Clinical Medical College of Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221009, P.R. China.
authors.forename: Rongrong
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Sun
authors.affiliation: Department of Cardiology, Xuzhou Central Hospital, The Affiliated Xuzhou Hospital of Medical College of Southeast University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221009, P.R. China.
authors.forename: Xianchi
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Li
authors.affiliation: Department of Cardiology, Xuzhou Clinical School of Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221009, P.R. China.
authors.forename: Min
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Liu
authors.affiliation: Department of Cardiology, Xuzhou Central Hospital, The Affiliated Xuzhou Hospital of Medical College of Southeast University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221009, P.R. China.
authors.forename: Shuang
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Chen
authors.affiliation: Department of Cardiology, Xuzhou Central Hospital, The Affiliated Xuzhou Hospital of Medical College of Southeast University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221009, P.R. China.
authors.forename: Peiying
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Zhang
keywords: aortic valve stenosis; biomineralization; calcific aortic valve disease; calcification; congenital heart disease; endothelial cells; valvular heart disease