title: Investigating the widespread introduction of a tropical marine fouling species.
abstract: Little is known about the number and rate of introductions into terrestrial and marine tropical regions, and if introduction patterns and processes differ from temperate latitudes. Botryllid ascidians (marine invertebrate chordates) are an interesting group to study such introduction differences because several congeners have established populations across latitudes. While temperate botryllid invasions have been repeatedly highlighted, the global spread of tropical Botrylloides nigrum (Herdman, 1886) has been largely ignored. We sampled B. nigrum from 16 worldwide warm water locations, including around the Panama Canal, one of the largest shipping hubs in the world and a possible introduction corridor. Using mitochondrial (COI) and nuclear (ANT) markers, we discovered a single species with low genetic divergence and diversity that has established in the Atlantic, Pacific, Indo-Pacific, and Mediterranean Oceans. The Atlantic Ocean contained the highest diversity and multilocus theta estimates and may be a source for introductions to other regions. A high frequency of one mitochondrial haplotype was detected in Pacific populations that may represent a recent introduction in this region. In comparison to temperate relatives, B. nigrum displayed lower (but similar to temperate Botrylloides violaceus) genetic divergence and diversity at both loci that may represent a more recent global spread or differences in introduction pressures in tropical regions. Additionally, chimeras (genetically distinct individuals sharing a single body) were detected in three populations by the mitochondrial locus and validated using cloning, and these individuals contained new haplotype diversity not detected in any other colonies.
authors.affiliation: Romberg Tiburon Center for Environmental Studies Biology Department San Francisco State University 3150 Paradise Drive Tiburon California 94920.
authors.forename: Elizabeth A
authors.initials: EA
authors.lastname: Sheets
authors.affiliation: Romberg Tiburon Center for Environmental Studies Biology Department San Francisco State University 3150 Paradise Drive Tiburon California 94920.
authors.forename: C Sarah
authors.initials: CS
authors.lastname: Cohen
authors.affiliation: Smithsonian Environmental Research Center 627 Contees Wharf Rd. Edgewater Maryland 21037.
authors.forename: Gregory M
authors.initials: GM
authors.lastname: Ruiz
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Zoologia Universidade Federal do Paraná CP 19020 81531-980 Curitiba Brazil.
authors.forename: Rosana M
authors.initials: RM
authors.lastname: da Rocha
keywords: Ascidian; Botrylloides nigrum; Panama Canal; biological introduction; chimerism; population genetics