title: Is khat use disorder a valid diagnostic entity?
abstract: This study aimed to validate the presence of a khat use disorder syndrome using DSM-5 criteria and to examine its relationship with increased experience of harms.
  
  
  
  Cross-sectional, purposive sample of current khat-chewers, recruited from khat markets and cafes.
  
  
  
  Participants were recruited from the general community and from Adama Science and Technology University in Ethiopia.
  
  
  
  A total of 400 current khat consumers aged 16 and above were recruited between September 2014 and January 2015 MEASURES: Survey comprising current clinical symptoms (using a modified Alcohol Use Disorder and Associated Disabilities Interview Schedule-IV), and validated measures of health, psychological distress, quality of life and academic functioning.
  
  
  
  A third [35.5% 95% confidence interval (CI) = 31.0-40.3] of respondents reported daily khat use and a quarter (25.4% 95% CI = 21.4-30.0) using three times or more per week. Using DSM-5 criteria, 10.5% (95% CI = 7.9-13.9) were categorized as experiencing mild, 8.8% (95% CI = 6.4-12.0) moderate and 54.5% (95% CI = 49.6-59.3) severe khat use disorder. Confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated a good fit of symptoms to a single underlying construct, consistent with other substance use disorders. Individuals categorized as experiencing khat use disorder demonstrated significantly greater frequency [odds ratio (OR) = 45.29; 95% CI = 10.97-19.01) and quantity of khat use (OR = 2.35; 95% CI = 1.29-4.29). They also demonstrated increased financial problems associated with use, greater problems with academic functioning and higher rates of self-reported mental health problems, higher psychological distress and poorer quality of life. Treatment access was poor, with only one-third (32.9%) of individuals with khat use disorder reporting life-time access, near-exclusively related to help-seeking from friends and relatives.
  
  
  
  The construct of a substance use disorder syndrome for khat using DSM-5 criteria appears valid and performs in a manner consistent with other substances of dependence. Individuals with khat use disorder experience substantial problems in association with khat use. Despite this, there are low levels of help-seeking for these problems.
authors.affiliation: School of Medicine, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia.
authors.forename: Samson W
authors.initials: SW
authors.lastname: Duresso
authors.affiliation: School of Medicine, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia.
authors.forename: Allison J
authors.identifier: 0000-0003-2961-9125
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Matthews
authors.affiliation: School of Medicine, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia.
authors.forename: Stuart G
authors.identifier: 0000-0001-7378-3497
authors.initials: SG
authors.lastname: Ferguson
authors.affiliation: School of Medicine, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia.
authors.forename: Raimondo
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Bruno
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D029754:Catha; D000697:Central Nervous System Stimulants; D039721:Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; D005002:Ethiopia; D005163:Factor Analysis, Statistical; D005260:Female; D006297:Health Services Accessibility; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008603:Mental Health; D008875:Middle Aged; D016017:Odds Ratio; D011788:Quality of Life; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D013315:Stress, Psychological / Q000523:psychology*; D019966:Substance-Related Disorders / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000523:psychology / Q000628:therapy; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D000697:Central Nervous System Stimulants
keywords: Catha; DSM-5; DSM-IV; central nervous system stimulants; khat; khat dependence; khat use disorder; stimulant use disorder; substance -related disorders