title: Reinforcing effectiveness of nicotine in nonhuman primates: effects of nicotine dose and history of nicotine self-administration.
abstract: Despite the high prevalence of nicotine use in humans, robust nicotine self-administration has been difficult to demonstrate in laboratory animals.
  
  
  
  A parametric analysis of nicotine self-administration was conducted to study its reinforcing effects in nonhuman primates.
  
  
  
  Adult rhesus macaques (N = 6) self-administered intravenous (IV) nicotine (0.001-0.1 mg/kg) under a fixed-ratio (FR)1 schedule of reinforcement during daily 90-min sessions. Next, the demand function relating drug intake and response cost was determined by increasing the FR across sessions during the availability of each of several unit doses of nicotine (0.0032-0.032 mg/kg/inj). The reinforcing effects of 0.01 mg/kg/inj cocaine and 1 g banana-flavored food pellets were also determined under similar testing conditions. Finally, the nicotine demand function was re-determined after approximately 8 months of daily IV nicotine self-administration.
  
  
  
  IV nicotine self-administration followed an inverted U-shaped pattern, with the peak number of injections maintained by 0.0032 mg/kg/inj. Self-administration of each reinforcer (food pellets, IV cocaine, and IV nicotine) decreased as FR size increased. Application of the exponential model of demand showed that demand elasticity for nicotine was (1) dose-dependent and lowest for 0.0032 mg/kg/inj; (2) for 0.0032 mg/kg/inj, similar to that of food pellets and significantly higher than cocaine; and (3) decreased after 8 months of daily nicotine self-administration.
  
  
  
  These data show that, though high levels of nicotine self-administration can be achieved under simple FR schedules in nonhuman primates, its reinforcing effectiveness is dose-related but limited and may increase over time.
authors.affiliation: Preclinical Pharmacology Laboratory, McLean Hospital, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA, USA. skohut@mclean.harvard.edu.|Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA, USA. skohut@mclean.harvard.edu.
authors.forename: Stephen J
authors.initials: SJ
authors.lastname: Kohut
authors.affiliation: Preclinical Pharmacology Laboratory, McLean Hospital, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA, USA.|Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, MA, USA.
authors.forename: Jack
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Bergman
mesh_terms: D061605:Administration, Intravenous; D000818:Animals; D001522:Behavior, Animal / Q000187:drug effects*; D003042:Cocaine / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000494:pharmacology; D004305:Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; D005247:Feeding Behavior / Q000187:drug effects / Q000523:psychology; D008253:Macaca mulatta; D008297:Male; D009538:Nicotine / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000494:pharmacology*; D012055:Reinforcement Schedule; D012054:Reinforcement, Psychology; D012646:Self Administration
chemical_list: D009538:Nicotine; D003042:Cocaine
keywords: Behavioral economics; Exponential model of demand; Fixed ratio; Nicotine self-administration; Nonhuman primates