title: Piped water consumption in Ghana: A case study of temporal and spatial patterns of clean water demand relative to alternative water sources in rural small towns.
abstract: Continuous access to adequate quantities of safe water is essential for human health and socioeconomic development. Piped water systems (PWSs) are an increasingly common type of water supply in rural African small towns. We assessed temporal and spatial patterns in water consumption from public standpipes of four PWSs in Ghana in order to assess clean water demand relative to other available water sources. Low water consumption was evident in all study towns, which manifested temporally and spatially. Temporal variability in water consumption that is negatively correlated with rainfall is an indicator of rainwater preference when it is available. Furthermore, our findings show that standpipes in close proximity to alternative water sources such as streams and hand-dug wells suffer further reductions in water consumption. Qualitative data suggest that consumer demand in the study towns appears to be driven more by water quantity, accessibility, and perceived aesthetic water quality, as compared to microbiological water quality or price. In settings with chronic under-utilization of improved water sources, increasing water demand through household connections, improving water quality with respect to taste and appropriateness for laundry, and educating residents about health benefits of using piped water should be prioritized. Continued consumer demand and sufficient revenue generation are important attributes of a water service that ensure its function over time. Our findings suggest that analyzing water consumption of existing metered PWSs in combination with qualitative approaches may enable more efficient planning of community-based water supplies and support sustainable development.
authors.affiliation: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, 200 College Avenue, Medford, MA 02155, USA. Electronic address: alexandra.kulinkina@tufts.edu.
authors.forename: Alexandra V
authors.initials: AV
authors.lastname: Kulinkina
authors.affiliation: Department of Community Health, Tufts University, 574 Boston Avenue, Medford, MA 02155, USA.
authors.forename: Karen C
authors.initials: KC
authors.lastname: Kosinski
authors.affiliation: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, 200 College Avenue, Medford, MA 02155, USA.
authors.forename: Alexander
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Liss
authors.affiliation: Unaffiliated, P.O. Box 399, Teshie, Accra, Ghana.
authors.forename: Michael N
authors.initials: MN
authors.lastname: Adjei
authors.affiliation: Community Water and Sanitation Agency, P.O. Box 1617, Koforidua, Ghana.
authors.forename: Gilbert A
authors.initials: GA
authors.lastname: Ayamgah
authors.affiliation: Friedman School of Nutrition Science and Policy, Tufts University, 150 Harrison Avenue, Boston, MA 02111, USA.
authors.forename: Patrick
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Webb
authors.affiliation: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, 200 College Avenue, Medford, MA 02155, USA.
authors.forename: David M
authors.initials: DM
authors.lastname: Gute
authors.affiliation: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 100 Institute Road, Worcester, MA 01609, USA.
authors.forename: Jeanine D
authors.initials: JD
authors.lastname: Plummer
authors.affiliation: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, 200 College Avenue, Medford, MA 02155, USA; Friedman School of Nutrition Science and Policy, Tufts University, 150 Harrison Avenue, Boston, MA 02111, USA.
authors.forename: Elena N
authors.initials: EN
authors.lastname: Naumova
mesh_terms: D003247:Conservation of Natural Resources; D060766:Drinking Water / Q000032:analysis*; D005869:Ghana; D006801:Humans; D012111:Residence Characteristics; D012424:Rural Population; D060753:Water Quality / Q000592:standards*; D062066:Water Resources / Q000600:supply & distribution*; D014881:Water Supply / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D060986:Water Wells
chemical_list: D060766:Drinking Water
keywords: Functional sustainability; Ghana; Improved water access; Piped water systems; Rural water; Water consumption