title: Why chlorate occurs in potable water and processed foods: a critical assessment and challenges faced by the food industry.
abstract: Recently, reports have been published on the occurrence of chlorate mainly in fruits and vegetables. Chlorate is a by-product of chlorinating agents used to disinfect water, and can be expected to be found in varying concentrations in drinking water. Data on potable water taken at 39 sampling points across Europe showed chlorate to range from < 0.003 to 0.803 mg l(-1) with a mean of 0.145 mg l(-1). Chlorate, however, can also be used as a pesticide, but authorisation was withdrawn in the European Union (EU), resulting in a default maximum residue limit (MRL) for foods of 0.01 mg kg(-1). This default MRL has now led to significant problems in the EU, where routinely disinfected water, used in the preparation of food products such as vegetables or fruits, leaves chlorate residues in excess of the default MRL, and in strict legal terms renders the food unmarketable. Due to the paucity of data on the chlorate content of prepared foods in general, we collated chlorate data on more than 3400 samples of mainly prepared foods, including dairy products, meats, fruits, vegetables and different food ingredients/additives. In total, 50.5% of the food samples contained chlorate above 0.01 mg kg(-1), albeit not due to the use of chlorate as a pesticide but mainly due to the occurrence of chlorate as an unavoidable disinfectant by-product. A further entry point of chlorate into foods may be via additives/ingredients that may contain chlorate as a by-product of the manufacturing process (e.g. electrolysis). Of the positive samples in this study, 22.4% revealed chlorate above 0.1 mg kg(-1). In the absence of EU levels for chlorate in water, any future EU regulations must consider the already available WHO guideline value of 0.7 mg l(-1) in potable water, and the continued importance of the usage of oxyhalides for disinfection purposes.
authors.affiliation: a FoodDrinkEurope , Brussels , Belgium.
authors.forename: Beate
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Kettlitz
authors.affiliation: b European Association of Fruit and Vegetable Processors (PROFEL) , Brussels , Belgium.
authors.forename: Gabriella
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Kemendi
authors.affiliation: c Ardo, PROFEL, Chair of Technical & Legislative Committee , Brussels , Belgium.
authors.forename: Nigel
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Thorgrimsson
authors.affiliation: d VEGEBE, Association of Belgian Vegetable Processors , Brussels , Belgium.
authors.forename: Nele
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Cattoor
authors.affiliation: e Nestlé, FoodDrinkEurope, Chair of the FCM Expert Group , Brussels , Belgium.
authors.forename: Ludovica
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Verzegnassi
authors.affiliation: f Cargill, FoodDrinkEurope, Contaminant Expert Group , Brussels , Belgium.
authors.forename: Yves
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Le Bail-Collet
authors.affiliation: g Danone Nutricia, Specialised Nutrition Europe, Chair of the Food Safety Work Group , Brussels , Belgium.
authors.forename: Farai
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Maphosa
authors.affiliation: h Specialised Nutrition Europe , Brussels , Belgium.
authors.forename: Aurélie
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Perrichet
authors.affiliation: i BLL - German Federation for Food Law and Food Science , Berlin , Germany.
authors.forename: Birgit
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Christall
authors.affiliation: j Nestlé, FoodDrinkEurope, Chair of the Process Contaminant Expert Group , Brussels , Belgium.
authors.forename: Richard H
authors.initials: RH
authors.lastname: Stadler
mesh_terms: D002704:Chlorates / Q000032:analysis*; D002851:Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid; D003611:Dairy Products / Q000032:analysis; D004202:Disinfectants; D060766:Drinking Water / Q000737:chemistry*; D005060:Europe; D057140:Fast Foods / Q000032:analysis; D005504:Food Analysis; D005506:Food Contamination / Q000032:analysis*; D005511:Food Handling; D019649:Food Industry; D005638:Fruit / Q000737:chemistry; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D007225:Infant Food / Q000032:analysis; D008452:Maximum Allowable Concentration; D008460:Meat / Q000032:analysis; D053719:Tandem Mass Spectrometry; D014675:Vegetables / Q000737:chemistry
chemical_list: D002704:Chlorates; D004202:Disinfectants; D060766:Drinking Water
keywords: Disinfection; baby food; biocide; chlorate; dairy ingredients; food; fruits; hypochlorite; pesticide; potable water; starch; vegetables