title: Anatomical variations in the brachial plexus roots: implications for diagnosis of neurogenic thoracic outlet syndrome.
abstract: Neurogenic thoracic outlet syndrome (NTOS) is the most common type of TOS. Typically it results from impingement of the neurovasculature as it passes between the anterior and middle scalene muscles; this classic anatomical relationship being the foundation of clinical diagnosis. Positional testing relies on vascular compromise occurring when the subclavian artery is compressed in this space. This study describes several anatomical variations observed in this relationship. Sixty-five cadavers (35m/30f) were assessed to determine the frequency and extent of brachial plexus branching variants. A total of thirty-one variations from "classic" anatomy were observed (47.7%). In two specimens (3.1%), the entire superior trunk coursed completely anterior to the anterior scalene in a position of relative vulnerability. In 27 instances, a portion of or the entire superior trunk pierced the anterior scalene muscle, and in two, the middle trunk also pierced the muscle belly. Interestingly, while two bilateral branching variations were observed, the majority occurred unilaterally, and almost exclusively on the left side. There were no sex differences in frequency. The high frequency of these variations and their potential to predispose patients to neurogenic TOS suggest that current diagnostic methods may be insufficient in clinical diagnosis. Due to lack of vascular compromise, patients with the piercing variant would not display positive signs on the traditional positional tests. The use of ultrasound to determine the route of the brachial plexus could determine whether this variation is present in patients who suffer from TOS symptoms but lack a diagnosis based on traditional positional testing.
authors.affiliation: Department of Osteopathic Manipulative Medicine, Arizona College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ 85308, USA.
authors.forename: Vanessa
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Leonhard
authors.affiliation: Department of Osteopathic Manipulative Medicine, Arizona College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ 85308, USA.
authors.forename: Riley
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Smith
authors.affiliation: Department of Osteopathic Manipulative Medicine, Arizona College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ 85308, USA.
authors.forename: Gregory
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Caldwell
authors.affiliation: Department of Anatomy, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ 85308, USA; School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-2402, USA. Electronic address: hsmith@midwestern.edu.
authors.forename: Heather F
authors.initials: HF
authors.lastname: Smith
mesh_terms: D063405:Anatomic Variation; D001917:Brachial Plexus / Q000002:abnormalities* / Q000473:pathology*; D002102:Cadaver; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012680:Sensitivity and Specificity; D013126:Spinal Nerve Roots / Q000002:abnormalities* / Q000473:pathology*; D013901:Thoracic Outlet Syndrome / Q000473:pathology*
keywords: Anatomical variation; Anterior scalene muscle; Brachial plexus; Middle trunk; Neurogenic thoracic outlet syndrome; Superior trunk