title: Red meat, diseases, and healthy alternatives: A critical review.
abstract: Meat is an important food for human nutrition, by especially providing high-quality protein and also some essential micronutrients, in front iron, zinc, and vitamin B12. However, a high intake of red and processed meat is associated with an increased risk for diseases, especially type 2 diabetes and colorectal cancer, as several epidemiological studies and meta-analyses have shown. This review summarizes meta-analyses of publications studying the association between red and processed meat intake and type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, colorectal and other cancers, and all-cause mortality. Various potential mechanisms involved in the increased disease risk are discussed. Furthermore, the beneficial effects of healthy alternatives for meat, like fish, nuts, vegetables and fruits, pulses and legumes, whole grains, and dairy products are reviewed by including selected papers and recent meta-analyses.
authors.affiliation: a Department of Environmental Health , Center for Public Health, Medical University of Vienna , Vienna , Austria.
authors.forename: Cem
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Ekmekcioglu
authors.affiliation: a Department of Environmental Health , Center for Public Health, Medical University of Vienna , Vienna , Austria.
authors.forename: Peter
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Wallner
authors.affiliation: a Department of Environmental Health , Center for Public Health, Medical University of Vienna , Vienna , Austria.
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Kundi
authors.affiliation: b Institute of Social Ecology, IFF Vienna, Alpen-Adria University Klagenfurt , Klagenfurt am Wörthersee , Austria.
authors.forename: Ulli
authors.initials: U
authors.lastname: Weisz
authors.affiliation: b Institute of Social Ecology, IFF Vienna, Alpen-Adria University Klagenfurt , Klagenfurt am Wörthersee , Austria.
authors.forename: Willi
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Haas
authors.affiliation: a Department of Environmental Health , Center for Public Health, Medical University of Vienna , Vienna , Austria.
authors.forename: Hans-Peter
authors.initials: HP
authors.lastname: Hutter
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D002318:Cardiovascular Diseases / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology* / Q000401:mortality / Q000517:prevention & control; D002417:Cattle; D015179:Colorectal Neoplasms / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology* / Q000401:mortality / Q000517:prevention & control; D003924:Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology* / Q000401:mortality / Q000517:prevention & control; D000072001:Diet, Healthy / Q000639:trends; D004044:Dietary Proteins / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000032:analysis; D019317:Evidence-Based Medicine; D057141:Food, Preserved / Q000009:adverse effects; D006801:Humans; D019266:Iron, Dietary / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000032:analysis; D008460:Meat / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000032:analysis; D008461:Meat Products / Q000009:adverse effects; D015201:Meta-Analysis as Topic; D009026:Mortality; D009753:Nutritive Value; D012307:Risk Factors; D034561:Sheep, Domestic; D034421:Sus scrofa; D014805:Vitamin B 12 / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000032:analysis; D015032:Zinc / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000032:analysis
chemical_list: D004044:Dietary Proteins; D019266:Iron, Dietary; D015032:Zinc; D014805:Vitamin B 12
keywords: Red meat; cancer; cardiovascular disease; diabetes; disease; healthy foods; mortality; processed meat