title: Effect of metabolic gases and water vapor, perfluorocarbon emulsions, and nitric oxide on tissue bubbles during decompression sickness.
abstract: In aviation and diving, fast decrease in ambient pressure, such as during accidental loss of cabin pressure or when a diver decompresses too fast to sea level, may cause nitrogen (N2) bubble formation in blood and tissue resulting in decompression sickness (DCS). Conventional treatment of DCS is oxygen (O2) breathing combined with recompression.  However, bubble kinetic models suggest, that metabolic gases, i.e. O2 and carbon dioxide (CO2), and water vapor contribute significantly to DCS bubble volume and growth at hypobaric altitude exposures. Further, perfluorocarbon emulsions (PFC) and nitric oxide (NO) donors have, on an experimental basis, demonstrated therapeutic properties both as treatment and prophylactic intervention against DCS. The effect was ascribed to solubility of respiratory gases in PFC, plausible NO elicited nuclei demise and/or N2 washout through enhanced blood flow rate. Accordingly, by means of monitoring injected bubbles in exposed adipose tissue or measurements of spinal evoked potentials (SEPs) in anaesthetized rats, the aim of this study was to: 1) evaluate the contribution of metabolic gases and water vapor to bubble volume at different barometrical altitude exposures, 2) clarify the O2 contribution and N2 solubility from bubbles during administration of PFC at normo- and hypobaric conditions and, 3) test the effect of different NO donors on SEPs during DCS upon a hyperbaric air dive and, to study the influence of  NO on tissue bubbles at high altitude exposures. The results support the bubble kinetic models and indicate that metabolic gases and water vapor contribute significantly to bubble volume at 25 kPa (~10,376 m above sea level) and constitute a threshold for bubble stabilization or decay at the interval of 47-36 kPa (~6,036 and ~7,920 m above sea level). The effect of the metabolic gases and water vapor seemed to compromise the therapeutic properties of both PFC and NO at altitude, while PFC significantly increased bubble disappearance rate at sea level following a hyperbaric airdive. We found no protective effect of NO donors during DCS from diving. On the contrary, there was a tendency towards a poorer outcome when decompression was combined with NO donor administration. This observation is seemingly contradictive to recent publications and may be explained by the multifactorial effect of NO in combination with a fast decompression profile, speeding up the N2 release from tissues and thereby aggravating the DCS symptoms.
authors.affiliation: thomas1623@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Thomas
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Randsøe
mesh_terms: D000273:Adipose Tissue / Q000503:physiopathology; D000818:Animals; D003664:Decompression; D003665:Decompression Sickness / Q000503:physiopathology* / Q000628:therapy*; D004618:Embolism, Air / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000628:therapy; D005466:Fluorocarbons / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000627:therapeutic use; D006801:Humans; D009569:Nitric Oxide / Q000378:metabolism*; D020030:Nitric Oxide Donors / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D010100:Oxygen / Q000627:therapeutic use; D051381:Rats; D013227:Steam
chemical_list: D005466:Fluorocarbons; D020030:Nitric Oxide Donors; D013227:Steam; D009569:Nitric Oxide; D010100:Oxygen