title: Theory of the development of curved barbs and their effects on feather morphology.
abstract: Feathers exhibit an extraordinary diversity of shapes, which are used by birds to accomplish a diverse set of functions. Pennaceous feathers have a double branched morphology that develops from a tube of epidermis, and variation in branch geometry determines feather shape. Feather development is both complex (i.e., a simple developmental modification can have multiple effects on mature feather shape), and redundant (i.e., different developmental modifications can create the same shape). Due to this, it is not readily apparent how different feather shapes develop. In many feathers, barbs are not straight, but instead curve in toward, or away, from the feather tip. Barb curvature can affect the shape of mature feathers but the development of curved barbs is unknown. Previous research has hypothesized that barb curvature could develop either during the helical growth of barb ridges in the tubular feather germ, or during barb angle expansion as the feather unfurls from the sheath. To better understand the development of curved barbs and their effects on mature feathers we present a theoretical model of curved barb development and test the model with empirical investigations of feathers. We find that curved barbs affect many aspects of feather morphology including vane width, barb length, and barb spacing. In real feathers, curved barbs can develop both during helical barb ridge growth and during barb angle expansion, with most of the observed curvature due to barb angle expansion. Our results demonstrate that barb angle expansion as a feather unfurls from the sheath is a complex and dynamic process that plays an important role in determining the shape and structure of mature feathers. Curved barbs create heterogeneity in barb geometry within the feather vane, which could have important implications for aerodynamic function and the development of within feather pigmentation patterns. J. Morphol. 277:995-1013, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.|Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.
authors.forename: Teresa J
authors.identifier: 0000-0002-4189-8692
authors.initials: TJ
authors.lastname: Feo
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.
authors.forename: Emma
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Simon
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.|Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.
authors.forename: Richard O
authors.initials: RO
authors.lastname: Prum
mesh_terms: D000704:Analysis of Variance; D000818:Animals; D001717:Birds / Q000033:anatomy & histology; D003198:Computer Simulation; D005241:Feathers / Q000033:anatomy & histology* / Q000254:growth & development*; D008962:Models, Theoretical; D014921:Wings, Animal / Q000033:anatomy & histology
keywords: asymmetrical flight feather; barb; barbule; curvature; feather development; theoretical morphospace