title: Giraffe genome sequence reveals clues to its unique morphology and physiology.
abstract: The origins of giraffe's imposing stature and associated cardiovascular adaptations are unknown. Okapi, which lacks these unique features, is giraffe's closest relative and provides a useful comparison, to identify genetic variation underlying giraffe's long neck and cardiovascular system. The genomes of giraffe and okapi were sequenced, and through comparative analyses genes and pathways were identified that exhibit unique genetic changes and likely contribute to giraffe's unique features. Some of these genes are in the HOX, NOTCH and FGF signalling pathways, which regulate both skeletal and cardiovascular development, suggesting that giraffe's stature and cardiovascular adaptations evolved in parallel through changes in a small number of genes. Mitochondrial metabolism and volatile fatty acids transport genes are also evolutionarily diverged in giraffe and may be related to its unusual diet that includes toxic plants. Unexpectedly, substantial evolutionary changes have occurred in giraffe and okapi in double-strand break repair and centrosome functions.
authors.affiliation: School of Life Sciences and Bioengineering, African Institute of Science and Technology, Arusha 4222, Tanzania.|Biosciences Eastern and Central Africa, International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi GPO00100, Kenya.|Center for Genomics and Bioinformatics, Department of Biology, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.
authors.forename: Morris
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Agaba
authors.affiliation: School of Life Sciences and Bioengineering, African Institute of Science and Technology, Arusha 4222, Tanzania.
authors.forename: Edson
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Ishengoma
authors.affiliation: Center for Genomics and Bioinformatics, Department of Biology, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.
authors.forename: Webb C
authors.initials: WC
authors.lastname: Miller
authors.affiliation: Center for Genomics and Bioinformatics, Department of Biology, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.
authors.forename: Barbara C
authors.initials: BC
authors.lastname: McGrath
authors.affiliation: Center for Genomics and Bioinformatics, Department of Biology, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.
authors.forename: Chelsea N
authors.initials: CN
authors.lastname: Hudson
authors.affiliation: Center for Genomics and Bioinformatics, Department of Biology, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.|MRC Functional Genomics Unit, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PT, UK.
authors.forename: Oscar C
authors.initials: OC
authors.lastname: Bedoya Reina
authors.affiliation: Center for Genomics and Bioinformatics, Department of Biology, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.|Center for Public Health Genomics, Department of Computer Science, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22908, USA.
authors.forename: Aakrosh
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Ratan
authors.affiliation: Center for Genomics and Bioinformatics, Department of Biology, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.
authors.forename: Rico
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Burhans
authors.affiliation: Center for Genomics and Bioinformatics, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.|Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.
authors.forename: Rayan
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Chikhi
authors.affiliation: Center for Genomics and Bioinformatics, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.|Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.
authors.forename: Paul
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Medvedev
authors.affiliation: Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.
authors.forename: Craig A
authors.initials: CA
authors.lastname: Praul
authors.affiliation: Center for Genomics and Bioinformatics, Department of Biology, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.
authors.forename: Lan
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Wu-Cavener
authors.affiliation: Center for Genomics and Bioinformatics, Department of Biology, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.
authors.forename: Brendan
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Wood
authors.affiliation: Nashville Zoo at Grassmere, Nashville, Tennessee 37211, USA.
authors.forename: Heather
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Robertson
authors.affiliation: White Oak Holdings, Yulee, Florida 32097, USA.
authors.forename: Linda
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Penfold
authors.affiliation: School of Life Sciences and Bioengineering, African Institute of Science and Technology, Arusha 4222, Tanzania.|Center for Genomics and Bioinformatics, Department of Biology, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA.
authors.forename: Douglas R
authors.initials: DR
authors.lastname: Cavener
mesh_terms: D000222:Adaptation, Physiological; D000595:Amino Acid Sequence; D019943:Amino Acid Substitution / Q000235:genetics; D000818:Animals; D001483:Base Sequence; D005075:Biological Evolution; D001846:Bone Development / Q000235:genetics; D016000:Cluster Analysis; D063990:Gene Ontology; D053263:Gene Regulatory Networks; D014644:Genetic Variation; D016678:Genome; D000068276:Giraffes / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000235:genetics* / Q000502:physiology*; D017422:Sequence Analysis, DNA