title: Occurrence and risk assessment of an azo dye - The case of Disperse Red 1.
abstract: Water quality criteria to protect aquatic life are not available for most disperse dyes which are often used as commercial mixtures in textile coloration. In this study, the acute and chronic toxicity of the commercial dye Disperse Red 1 (DR1) to eight aquatic organisms from four trophic levels was evaluated. A safety threshold, i.e. Predicted No-Effect Concentration (PNEC), was derived based on the toxicity information of the commercial product and the purified dye. This approach was possible because the toxicity of DR1 was accounting for most of the toxicity of the commercial mixture. A long-term PNEC of 60 ng L(-1) was proposed, based on the most sensitive chronic endpoint for Daphnia similis. A short-term PNEC of 1800 ng L(-1) was proposed based on the most sensitive acute endpoint also for Daphnia similis. Both key studies have been evaluated with the new "Criteria for Reporting and Evaluating ecotoxicity Data" (CRED) methodology, applying more objective criteria to assess the quality of toxicity tests, resulting in two reliable and relevant endpoints with only minor restrictions. HPLC-MS/MS was used to quantify the occurrence of DR1 in river waters of three sites, influenced by textile industry discharges, resulting in a concentration range of 50-500 ng L(-1). The risk quotients for DR1 obtained in this work suggest that this dye can pose a potential risk to freshwater biota. To reduce uncertainty of the derived PNEC, a fish partial or full lifecycle study should be performed.
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, USP, São Paulo, Brazil; School of Technology, State University of Campinas, UNICAMP, Limeira, SP, Brazil.
authors.forename: Francine Inforçato
authors.initials: FI
authors.lastname: Vacchi
authors.affiliation: Amalex Environmental Solutions, Leipzig, Germany.
authors.forename: Peter Carsten
authors.initials: PC
authors.lastname: Von der Ohe
authors.affiliation: School of Technology, State University of Campinas, UNICAMP, Limeira, SP, Brazil.
authors.forename: Anjaína Fernandes de
authors.initials: AF
authors.lastname: Albuquerque
authors.affiliation: School of Technology, State University of Campinas, UNICAMP, Limeira, SP, Brazil.
authors.forename: Josiane Aparecida de Souza
authors.initials: JAS
authors.lastname: Vendemiatti
authors.affiliation: School of Technology, State University of Campinas, UNICAMP, Limeira, SP, Brazil.
authors.forename: Carina Cristina Jesus
authors.initials: CCJ
authors.lastname: Azevedo
authors.affiliation: School of Technology, State University of Campinas, UNICAMP, Limeira, SP, Brazil.
authors.forename: Jaqueline Gonçalves
authors.initials: JG
authors.lastname: Honório
authors.affiliation: Chemical Institute, State University of São Paulo UNESP, Araraquara, SP, Brazil.
authors.forename: Bianca Ferreira da
authors.initials: BFD
authors.lastname: Silva
authors.affiliation: Chemical Institute, State University of São Paulo UNESP, Araraquara, SP, Brazil.
authors.forename: Maria Valnice Boldrin
authors.initials: MVB
authors.lastname: Zanoni
authors.affiliation: School of Life Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Theodore B
authors.initials: TB
authors.lastname: Henry
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology & CESAM, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal.
authors.forename: Antonio J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Nogueira
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, USP, São Paulo, Brazil; School of Technology, State University of Campinas, UNICAMP, Limeira, SP, Brazil. Electronic address: giselau@ft.unicamp.br.
authors.forename: Gisela de Aragão
authors.initials: GA
authors.lastname: Umbuzeiro
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001391:Azo Compounds / Q000633:toxicity*; D003621:Daphnia / Q000187:drug effects*; D005618:Fresh Water; D018570:Risk Assessment; D053719:Tandem Mass Spectrometry; D013783:Textile Industry; D018675:Toxicity Tests; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000633:toxicity*
chemical_list: D001391:Azo Compounds; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical; C069318:Disperse Red 1
keywords: Algae; Daphnia; Dyes; Fish; Mixture; PNEC