title: Rapid Acquisition of Linezolid Resistance in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus: Role of Hypermutation and Homologous Recombination.
abstract: We previously reported the case of a 64-year-old man with mediastinitis caused by Staphylococcus aureus in which the infecting bacterium acquired linezolid resistance after only 14 days treatment with linezolid. We therefore investigated relevant clinical isolates for possible mechanisms of this rapid acquisition of linezolid resistance.
  
  
  
  Using clinical S. aureus isolates, we assessed the in vitro mutation rate and performed stepwise selection for linezolid resistance. To investigate homologous recombination, sequences were determined for each of the 23S ribosomal RNA (23S rRNA) loci; analyzed sequences spanned the entirety of each 23S rRNA gene, including domain V, as well as the 16S-23S intergenic spacer regions. We additionally performed next-generation sequencing on clinical strains to identify single-nucleotide polymorphisms compared to the N315 genome.
  
  
  
  Strains isolated from the patient prior to linezolid exposure (M5-M7) showed higher-level linezolid resistance than N315, and the pre-exposure strain (M2) exhibited more rapid acquisition of linezolid resistance than did N315. However, the mutation rates of these and contemporaneous clinical isolates were similar to those of N315, and the isolates did not exhibit any mutations in hypermutation-related genes. Sequences of the 23S rRNA genes and 16S-23S intergenic spacer regions were identical among the pre- and post-exposure clinical strains. Notably, all of the pre-exposure isolates harbored a recQ missense mutation (Glu69Asp) with respect to N315; such a lesion may have affected short sequence recombination (facilitating, for example, recombination among rrn loci). We hypothesize that this mechanism contributed to rapid acquisition of linezolid resistance.
  
  
  
  Hypermutation and homologous recombination of the ribosomal RNA genes, including 23S rRNA genes, appear not to have been sources of the accelerated acquisition of linezolid resistance observed in our clinical case. Increased frequency of short sequence recombination may have resulted from a recQ variant in the infecting organism.
authors.affiliation: Department of Infection Control Science, Faculty of Medicine, Juntendo University, Tokyo, Japan.|Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Juntendo University, Tokyo, Japan.|Department of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo Women`s Medical University, Tokyo, Japan.
authors.forename: Shigekazu
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Iguchi
authors.affiliation: Department of Infection Control Science, Faculty of Medicine, Juntendo University, Tokyo, Japan.|Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Juntendo University, Tokyo, Japan.
authors.forename: Tomonori
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Mizutani
authors.affiliation: Department of Infection Control Science, Faculty of Medicine, Juntendo University, Tokyo, Japan.|Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Juntendo University, Tokyo, Japan.
authors.forename: Keiichi
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Hiramatsu
authors.affiliation: Department of Infection Control Science, Faculty of Medicine, Juntendo University, Tokyo, Japan.|Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Juntendo University, Tokyo, Japan.|Department of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo Women`s Medical University, Tokyo, Japan.
authors.forename: Ken
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Kikuchi
mesh_terms: D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents / Q000494:pharmacology*; D021903:DNA, Ribosomal Spacer; D024881:Drug Resistance, Bacterial; D016680:Genome, Bacterial; D023281:Genomics / Q000379:methods; D059765:Homologous Recombination; D006801:Humans; D000069349:Linezolid / Q000494:pharmacology*; D055624:Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus / Q000145:classification / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000235:genetics*; D008826:Microbial Sensitivity Tests; D009154:Mutation; D059645:Mutation Rate; D010802:Phylogeny; D020641:Polymorphism, Single Nucleotide; D012335:RNA, Ribosomal / Q000235:genetics; D013203:Staphylococcal Infections / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000382:microbiology
chemical_list: D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents; D021903:DNA, Ribosomal Spacer; D012335:RNA, Ribosomal; D000069349:Linezolid