title: Hashish in Morocco and Lebanon: A comparative study.
abstract: In the 1960s and the 1970s, Morocco and Lebanon became major producers of hashish for export to markets in West and Central Europe, Africa and the Middle East. By using a comparative approach, this paper aims to evaluate changes in production in the traditional areas of cannabis cultivation in the Rif (Morocco) and the Beqaa (Lebanon) and to better understand the role that these countries play in current trends in the global cultivation and consumption of cannabis.
  
  
  
  The comparative approach takes in account the historical and institutionnal context, and the perception of cannabis in those two country. We rely on primary field research done in the Rif (from 2002) and in the Beqaa (from 1995) in the form of interviews and observations with farmers and intermediaries. Acreage and production estimates of hashish for both countries have been triangulated from different sources.
  
  
  
  Maghreb and Middle East have a long history of consumption, production and marketing of cannabis. Over the past 12 centuries, migration, trade and different spiritual practices and trends have led to the expansion of cannabis markets. This long period is marked by stages and rifts caused by foreign interference, a worldwide prohibition of cannabis at the beginning of the 20th century and increased global demand in the 1960s and the 1970s. Morocco and Lebanon are among the most important producers of hashish to be exported for trade for the last fifty years. The global prohibition of cannabis and the global sustained demand have created opportunities for poor farmers in the Rif and the Beqaa regions to survive and get wealthy. It is difficult to understand the reasons why areas producing cannabis are steadily increasing. If the Rif and the Beqaa share some features (such are marginalized areas of production, repressive legislation, huge international demand, range of comparable tasks and Mediterranean climate suitable for growing cannabis, etc.) then a comparison between the two countries makes it more easy to notice differences in contexts, in local and international markets (Stability in Morocco, instability in Lebanon; traditional market in Morocco, absence of local market in Lebanon, etc.) In Morocco, the stability and specialized skills among Moroccan growers of hashish have enhanced a competitive economy with various production areas, products and qualities, but also prices and strategies due to competition between Moroccan and European producers. Moreover, Morocco produces cannabis for its significant local market.
  
  
  
  As shown by comparing Morocco and Lebanon, allows us to examine their perverse effects caused by a global prohibition. The criminalization of growers has only increased their marginalized situation. The enforced eradication of cannabis has limited the cultivation for a short time but not in any sustainable way (resumption of cannabis cultivation in a time of conflict in Lebanon; replacement of local variety by hybrids in Morocco). The cultural heritage of cannabis and its social functions should not be ignored. In the light of the new global changes in the cannabis cultivation (Import substitution, technical progress in developed countries, etc.), hashish producers in the south countries are likely to face uncertain future.
authors.affiliation: Clersé, Université Lille 1, Bâtiment SH2, 59 655 Villeneuve d'Ascq Cedex, France; Faculty of Agronomy, The Lebanese University, Beirut, Lebanon. Electronic address: afkenza@yahoo.com.
authors.forename: Kenza
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Afsahi
authors.affiliation: Clersé, Université Lille 1, Bâtiment SH2, 59 655 Villeneuve d'Ascq Cedex, France; Faculty of Agronomy, The Lebanese University, Beirut, Lebanon.
authors.forename: Salem
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Darwich
mesh_terms: D002188:Cannabis / Q000254:growth & development*; D003132:Commerce / Q000191:economics / Q000266:history; D018556:Crops, Agricultural / Q000191:economics / Q000254:growth & development* / Q000266:history; D003466:Cultural Characteristics; D049668:History, 15th Century; D049669:History, 16th Century; D049670:History, 17th Century; D049671:History, 18th Century; D049672:History, 19th Century; D049673:History, 20th Century; D049674:History, 21st Century; D049690:History, Ancient; D049691:History, Medieval; D006801:Humans; D007861:Lebanon / Q000453:epidemiology; D002189:Marijuana Abuse / Q000191:economics / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000266:history; D008385:Marijuana Smoking / Q000191:economics / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000266:history; D009018:Morocco / Q000453:epidemiology; D013997:Time Factors
keywords: Beqaa; Cannabis; Comparative study; Global market; Hashish; History; Lebanon; Morocco; Rif; Supply