title: Understanding the Relationships between Gender Inequitable Behaviours, Childhood Trauma and Socio-Economic Status in Single and Multiple Perpetrator Rape in Rural South Africa: Structural Equation Modelling.
abstract: Interventions to prevent rape perpetration must be designed to address its drivers. This paper seeks to extend understanding of drivers of single and multiple perpetrator rape (referred to here as SPR and MPR respectively) and the relationships between socio-economic status, childhood trauma, peer pressure, other masculine behaviours and rape.
  
  
  
  1370 young men aged 15 to 26 were interviewed as part of the randomised controlled trial evaluation of Stepping Stones in the rural Eastern Cape. We used multinomial to compare the characteristics of men who reported rape perpetration at baseline. We used structural equation modelling (SEM) to examine pathways to rape perpetration.
  
  
  
  76.1% of young men had never raped, 10.0% had perpetrated SPR and 13.9% MPR. The factors associated with both MPR and SPR (compared to never having raped) were indicators of socio-economic status (SES), childhood trauma, sexual coercion by a woman, drug and alcohol use, peer pressure susceptibility, having had transactional sex, multiple sexual partners and being physically violent towards a partner. The SEM showed the relationship between SES and rape perpetration to be mediated by gender inequitable masculinity. It was complex as there was a direct path indicating that SES correlated with the masculinity variable directly such that men of higher SES had more gender inequitable masculinities, and indirect path mediated by peer pressure resistance indicated that the former pertained so long as men lacked peer pressure resistance. Having a higher SES conveyed greater resistance for some men. There was also a path mediated through childhood trauma, such that men of lower SES were more likely to have a higher childhood trauma exposure and this correlated with a higher likelihood of having the gender inequitable masculinity (with or without the mediating effect of peer pressure resistance).
  
  
  
  Both higher and lower socio-economic status were associated with raping. Prevention of rape perpetration must focus on changing men's gender ideals, entitlements and inequitable practices. Reducing poverty and adverse childhood experiences should also be of benefit.
authors.affiliation: Gender & Health Research Unit, Medical Research Council, Pretoria, South Africa.|School of Public Health, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
authors.forename: Rachel
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Jewkes
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
authors.forename: Mzikazi
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Nduna
authors.affiliation: Gender & Health Research Unit, Medical Research Council, Pretoria, South Africa.|School of Public Health, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
authors.forename: Nwabisa
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Jama-Shai
authors.affiliation: Gender & Health Research Unit, Medical Research Council, Pretoria, South Africa.
authors.forename: Esnat
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Chirwa
authors.affiliation: Gender & Health Research Unit, Medical Research Council, Pretoria, South Africa.
authors.forename: Kristin
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Dunkle
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D003068:Coercion; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D057228:Masculinity; D008962:Models, Theoretical; D000067074:Peer Influence; D011902:Rape / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D012424:Rural Population / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D012923:Social Class; D013019:South Africa / Q000453:epidemiology; D014947:Wounds and Injuries / Q000453:epidemiology*; D055815:Young Adult