title: Race, Neighborhood Economic Status, Income Inequality and Mortality.
abstract: Mortality rates in the United States vary based on race, individual economic status and neighborhood. Correlations among these variables in most urban areas have limited what conclusions can be drawn from existing research. Our study employs a unique factorial design of race, sex, age and individual poverty status, measuring time to death as an objective measure of health, and including both neighborhood economic status and income inequality for a sample of middle-aged urban-dwelling adults (N = 3675). At enrollment, African American and White participants lived in 46 unique census tracts in Baltimore, Maryland, which varied in neighborhood economic status and degree of income inequality. A Cox regression model for 9-year mortality identified a three-way interaction among sex, race and individual poverty status (p = 0.03), with African American men living below poverty having the highest mortality. Neighborhood economic status, whether measured by a composite index or simply median household income, was negatively associated with overall mortality (p<0.001). Neighborhood income inequality was associated with mortality through an interaction with individual poverty status (p = 0.04). While racial and economic disparities in mortality are well known, this study suggests that several social conditions associated with health may unequally affect African American men in poverty in the United States. Beyond these individual factors are the influences of neighborhood economic status and income inequality, which may be affected by a history of residential segregation. The significant association of neighborhood economic status and income inequality with mortality beyond the synergistic combination of sex, race and individual poverty status suggests the long-term importance of small area influence on overall mortality.
authors.affiliation: National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America.
authors.forename: Nicolle A
authors.initials: NA
authors.lastname: Mode
authors.affiliation: National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America.
authors.forename: Michele K
authors.initials: MK
authors.lastname: Evans
authors.affiliation: National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America.
authors.forename: Alan B
authors.initials: AB
authors.lastname: Zonderman
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000375:Aging / Q000502:physiology; D015142:Baltimore / Q000453:epidemiology; D016001:Confidence Intervals; D005260:Female; D006262:Health; D006801:Humans; D007182:Income / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009026:Mortality / Q000208:ethnology*; D015999:Multivariate Analysis; D016016:Proportional Hazards Models; D044469:Racial Groups / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D012111:Residence Characteristics / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors