title: [Eye contact effects: A therapeutic issue?]
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The perception of a direct gaze - that is, of another individual's gaze directed at the observer that leads to eye contact - is known to influence a wide range of cognitive processes and behaviors. We stress that these effects mainly reflect positive impacts on human cognition and may thus be used as relevant tools for therapeutic purposes.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  In this review, we aim (1) to provide an exhaustive review of eye contact effects while discussing the limits of the dominant models used to explain these effects, (2) to illustrate the therapeutic potential of eye contact by targeting those pathologies that show both preserved gaze processing and deficits in one or several functions that are targeted by the eye contact effects, and (3) to propose concrete ways in which eye contact could be employed as a therapeutic tool.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  (1) We regroup the variety of eye contact effects into four categories, including memory effects, activation of prosocial behavior, positive appraisals of self and others and the enhancement of self-awareness. We emphasize that the models proposed to account for these effects have a poor predictive value and that further descriptions of these effects is needed. (2) We then emphasize that people with pathologies that affect memory, social behavior, and self and/or other appraisal, and self-awareness could benefit from eye contact effects. We focus on depression, autism and Alzheimer's disease to illustrate our proposal. To our knowledge, no anomaly of eye contact has been reported in depression. Patients suffering from Alzheimer disease, at the early and moderate stage, have been shown to maintain a normal amount of eye contact with their interlocutor. We take into account that autism is controversial regarding whether gaze processing is preserved or altered. In the first view, individuals are thought to elude or omit gazing at another's eyes while in the second, individuals are considered to not be able to process the gaze of others. We adopt the first stance following the view that people with autism are not interested in processing social signals such as gaze but could do so efficiently if properly motivated. For each pathology we emphasize that eye contact could be used, for example, to enhance sensitivity to bodily states, thus improving emotional decision making (in autism); to lead to more positive appraisal of the self and others (in depression); to improve memory performances (in Alzheimer disease) and, more generally, to motivate the recipient to engage in the therapeutic process. (3) Finally we propose two concrete ways to employ eye contact effects as a therapeutic tool. The first is to develop cognitive-behavioral tools to learn and/or motivate the recipient to create frequent and prolonged eye contact periods. The second is to raise awareness among caregivers of the beneficial effects of eye contact and to teach them the way to use eye contact to reach its optimum effects. Future investigations are however needed to explore the ways in which eye contact effects can be efficiently integrated in therapeutic strategies, as well as to identify the clinical populations that can benefit from such therapeutic interventions.
authors.affiliation: Laboratoire de psychopathologie et neuropsychologie (LPN, EA2027), université Paris 8, 93526 Saint-Denis cedex, France. Electronic address: matias.baltazar.p8@gmail.com.
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Baltazar
authors.affiliation: Laboratoire de psychopathologie et neuropsychologie (LPN, EA2027), université Paris 8, 93526 Saint-Denis cedex, France.
authors.forename: L
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Conty
mesh_terms: D003142:Communication; D005123:Eye; D005403:Fixation, Ocular; D006801:Humans; D001523:Mental Disorders / Q000523:psychology* / Q000628:therapy*; D011613:Psychotherapy / Q000379:methods*; D012919:Social Behavior
keywords: Alzheimer's disease; Autism; Autisme; Depression; Dépression; Effets du contact par le regard; Eye contact effects; Implications thérapeutiques; Maladie d’Alzheimer; Therapeutic implications