title: The Compensatory Reserve Index Following Injury: Results of a Prospective Clinical Trial.
abstract: Humans are able to compensate for significant blood loss with little change in traditional vital signs. We hypothesized that an algorithm, which recognizes compensatory changes in photoplethysmogram (PPG) waveforms, could detect active bleeding and ongoing volume loss in injured patients.
  
  
  
  Injured adults were prospectively enrolled at a level I trauma center. PPG data collection was conducted using a custom-made pulse oximeter. Waveform data were post-processed by an algorithm to calculate the compensatory reserve index (CRI), measured on a scale of 1 to 0, with 1 indicating fully compensated and 0 indicating no reserve, or decompensation. CRI was compared to clinical findings.
  
  
  
  Fifty patients were enrolled in the study; 3 had incomplete data, 3 had indeterminate bleeding, 12 were actively bleeding, and 32 were not bleeding. The mean initial CRI of bleeding patients was significantly lower compared with the non-bleeding patients (CRI 0.17, 95% CI = 0.13-0.22 vs. CRI 0.56, 95% CI = 0.49-0.62, P < 0.001). Using a cut-off of 0.21 had a sensitivity of 0.97 and specificity of 0.83 for identifying bleeding patients. CRI had a higher sensitivity than heart rate (75%), systolic blood pressure (63%), shock index (27%), base deficit (29%), lactate (80%), hemoglobin (50%), and hematocrit (50%). During ongoing bleeding, CRI decreased following fluid resuscitation, and conversely increased for patients who were not bleeding.
  
  
  
  A novel computational algorithm that recognizes subtle changes in PPG waveforms can quickly and noninvasively discern which patients are actively bleeding and continuing to bleed with high sensitivity and specificity in acutely injured patients.
authors.affiliation: *University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado †Flashback Technologies Inc., Boulder, Colorado ‡Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, Colorado §Denver Health Medical Center, Denver, Colorado.
authors.forename: Camille L
authors.initials: CL
authors.lastname: Stewart
authors.forename: Jane
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Mulligan
authors.forename: Greg Z
authors.initials: GZ
authors.lastname: Grudic
authors.forename: Mark E
authors.initials: ME
authors.lastname: Talley
authors.forename: Gregory J
authors.initials: GJ
authors.lastname: Jurkovich
authors.forename: Steven L
authors.initials: SL
authors.lastname: Moulton
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000465:Algorithms; D001794:Blood Pressure / Q000502:physiology; D005260:Female; D006339:Heart Rate / Q000502:physiology; D006400:Hematocrit; D006454:Hemoglobins / Q000378:metabolism; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D017156:Photoplethysmography; D011446:Prospective Studies; D056152:Respiratory Rate / Q000502:physiology; D012769:Shock / Q000503:physiopathology; D055986:Vital Signs / Q000502:physiology*; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D006454:Hemoglobins