title: Evaluation of the Persistence, Remission, and Emergence of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Young Adulthood.
abstract: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is now recognized to occur in adulthood and is associated with a range of negative outcomes. However, less is known about the prospective course of ADHD into adulthood, the risk factors for its persistence, and the possibility of its emergence in young adulthood in nonclinical populations.
  
  
  
  To investigate childhood risk factors and young adult functioning of individuals with persistent, remitted, and late-onset young adult ADHD.
  
  
  
  The study sample was the Environmental Risk (E-Risk) Longitudinal Twin Study, a nationally representative birth cohort of 2232 twins born in England and Wales from January 1, 1994, to December 4, 1995. Evaluation of childhood ADHD (ages 5, 7, 10, and 12 years) included prenatal and perinatal factors, clinical characteristics, and aspects of the family environment. Among participants aged 18 years, ADHD symptoms and associated impairment, overall functioning, and other mental health disorders were examined. Data analysis was conducted from February 19 to September 10, 2015.
  
  
  
  Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder according to DSM-IV diagnostic criteria in childhood and DSM-5 diagnostic criteria in young adulthood.
  
  
  
  Of 2232 participants in the E-Risk Study, 2040 were included in the present analysis. In total, 247 individuals met diagnostic criteria for childhood ADHD; of these, 54 (21.9%) also met diagnostic criteria for the disorder at age 18 years. Persistence was associated with more symptoms (odds ratio [OR], 1.11 [95% CI, 1.04-1.19]) and lower IQ (OR, 0.98 [95% CI, 0.95-1.00]). At age 18 years, individuals with persistent ADHD had more functional impairment (school/work: OR, 3.30 [95% CI, 2.18-5.00], home/with friends: OR, 6.26 [95% CI, 3.07-12.76]), generalized anxiety disorder (OR, 5.19 [95% CI, 2.01-13.38]), conduct disorder (OR, 2.03 [95% CI, 1.03-3.99]), and marijuana dependence (OR, 2.88 [95% CI, 1.07-7.71]) compared with those whose ADHD remitted. Among 166 individuals with adult ADHD, 112 (67.5%) did not meet criteria for ADHD at any assessment in childhood. Results from logistic regressions indicated that individuals with late-onset ADHD showed fewer externalizing problems (OR, 0.93 [95% CI, 0.91-0.96]) and higher IQ (OR, 1.04 [95% CI, 1.02-1.07]) in childhood compared with the persistent group. However, at age 18 years, those with late-onset ADHD demonstrated comparable ADHD symptoms and impairment as well as similarly elevated rates of mental health disorders.
  
  
  
  We identified heterogeneity in the DSM-5 young adult ADHD population such that this group consisted of a large, late-onset ADHD group with no childhood diagnosis, and a smaller group with persistent ADHD. The extent to which childhood-onset and late-onset adult ADHD may reflect different causes has implications for genetic studies and treatment of ADHD.
authors.affiliation: Medical Research Council Social, Genetic, and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Jessica C
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Agnew-Blais
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry, University of São Paulo Medical School, São Paulo, Brazil.
authors.forename: Guilherme V
authors.initials: GV
authors.lastname: Polanczyk
authors.affiliation: Medical Research Council Social, Genetic, and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom3Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Psyc.
authors.forename: Andrea
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Danese
authors.affiliation: Medical Research Council Social, Genetic, and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Jasmin
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Wertz
authors.affiliation: Medical Research Council Social, Genetic, and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom5Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, North Ca.
authors.forename: Terrie E
authors.initials: TE
authors.lastname: Moffitt
authors.affiliation: Medical Research Council Social, Genetic, and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Louise
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Arseneault
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000367:Age Factors; D001289:Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000523:psychology*; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D015331:Cohort Studies; D004739:England; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D000067562:Late Onset Disorders / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000523:psychology; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D012075:Remission, Spontaneous; D012307:Risk Factors; D055815:Young Adult