title: Selective forces and mutational biases drive stop codon usage in the human genome: a comparison with sense codon usage.
abstract: The three stop codons UAA, UAG, and UGA signal the termination of mRNA translation. As a result of a mechanism that is not adequately understood, they are normally used with unequal frequencies.
  
  
  
  In this work, we showed that selective forces and mutational biases drive stop codon usage in the human genome. We found that, in respect to sense codons, stop codon usage was affected by stronger selective forces but was less influenced by neutral mutational biases. UGA is the most frequent termination codon in human genome. However, UAA was the preferred stop codon in genes with high breadth of expression, high level of expression, AT-rich coding sequences, housekeeping functions, and in gene ontology categories with the largest deviation from expected stop codon usage. Selective forces associated with the breadth and the level of expression favoured AT-rich sequences in the mRNA region including the stop site and its proximal 3'-UTR, but acted with scarce effects on sense codons, generating two regions, upstream and downstream of the stop codon, with strongly different base composition. By favouring low levels of GC-content, selection promoted labile local secondary structures at the stop site and its proximal 3'-UTR. The compositional and structural context favoured by selection was surprisingly emphasized in the class of ribosomal proteins and was consistent with sequence elements that increase the efficiency of translational termination. Stop codons were also heterogeneously distributed among chromosomes by a mechanism that was strongly correlated with the GC-content of coding sequences.
  
  
  
  In human genome, the nucleotide composition and the thermodynamic stability of stop codon site and its proximal 3'-UTR are correlated with the GC-content of coding sequences and with the breadth and the level of gene expression. In highly expressed genes stop codon usage is compositionally and structurally consistent with highly efficient translation termination signals.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Translational Pharmacology, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Rome, 00133, Italy. edoardo.trotta@ift.cnr.it.
authors.forename: Edoardo
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Trotta
mesh_terms: D001482:Base Composition; D003062:Codon; D018388:Codon, Terminator; D019295:Computational Biology / Q000379:methods; D019143:Evolution, Molecular; D020869:Gene Expression Profiling; D005786:Gene Expression Regulation; D005787:Gene Frequency; D063990:Gene Ontology; D015894:Genome, Human; D006801:Humans; D009154:Mutation; D016366:Open Reading Frames; D020871:RNA Stability; D012641:Selection, Genetic; D014158:Transcription, Genetic
chemical_list: D003062:Codon; D018388:Codon, Terminator
keywords: Codon bias; GC content; Human genome; Minimum folding energy; Stop codon; Transcriptome