title: Management of lumbar zygapophysial (facet) joint pain.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To investigate the diagnostic validity and therapeutic value of lumbar facet joint interventions in managing chronic low back pain.
  
  
  METHODS
  The review process applied systematic evidence-based assessment methodology of controlled trials of diagnostic validity and randomized controlled trials of therapeutic efficacy. Inclusion criteria encompassed all facet joint interventions performed in a controlled fashion. The pain relief of greater than 50% was the outcome measure for diagnostic accuracy assessment of the controlled studies with ability to perform previously painful movements, whereas, for randomized controlled therapeutic efficacy studies, the primary outcome was significant pain relief and the secondary outcome was a positive change in functional status. For the inclusion of the diagnostic controlled studies, all studies must have utilized either placebo controlled facet joint blocks or comparative local anesthetic blocks. In assessing therapeutic interventions, short-term and long-term reliefs were defined as either up to 6 mo or greater than 6 mo of relief. The literature search was extensive utilizing various types of electronic search media including PubMed from 1966 onwards, Cochrane library, National Guideline Clearinghouse, clinicaltrials.gov, along with other sources including previous systematic reviews, non-indexed journals, and abstracts until March 2015. Each manuscript included in the assessment was assessed for methodologic quality or risk of bias assessment utilizing the Quality Appraisal of Reliability Studies checklist for diagnostic interventions, and Cochrane review criteria and the Interventional Pain Management Techniques - Quality Appraisal of Reliability and Risk of Bias Assessment tool for therapeutic interventions. Evidence based on the review of the systematic assessment of controlled studies was graded utilizing a modified schema of qualitative evidence with best evidence synthesis, variable from level I to level V.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Across all databases, 16 high quality diagnostic accuracy studies were identified. In addition, multiple studies assessed the influence of multiple factors on diagnostic validity. In contrast to diagnostic validity studies, therapeutic efficacy trials were limited to a total of 14 randomized controlled trials, assessing the efficacy of intraarticular injections, facet or zygapophysial joint nerve blocks, and radiofrequency neurotomy of the innervation of the facet joints. The evidence for the diagnostic validity of lumbar facet joint nerve blocks with at least 75% pain relief with ability to perform previously painful movements was level I, based on a range of level I to V derived from a best evidence synthesis. For therapeutic interventions, the evidence was variable from level II to III, with level II evidence for lumbar facet joint nerve blocks and radiofrequency neurotomy for long-term improvement (greater than 6 mo), and level III evidence for lumbosacral zygapophysial joint injections for short-term improvement only.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This review provides significant evidence for the diagnostic validity of facet joint nerve blocks, and moderate evidence for therapeutic radiofrequency neurotomy and therapeutic facet joint nerve blocks in managing chronic low back pain.
authors.affiliation: Laxmaiah Manchikanti, Pain Management Center of Paducah, Paducah, KY 42003, United States.
authors.forename: Laxmaiah
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Manchikanti
authors.affiliation: Laxmaiah Manchikanti, Pain Management Center of Paducah, Paducah, KY 42003, United States.
authors.forename: Joshua A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Hirsch
authors.affiliation: Laxmaiah Manchikanti, Pain Management Center of Paducah, Paducah, KY 42003, United States.
authors.forename: Frank Je
authors.initials: FJ
authors.lastname: Falco
authors.affiliation: Laxmaiah Manchikanti, Pain Management Center of Paducah, Paducah, KY 42003, United States.
authors.forename: Mark V
authors.initials: MV
authors.lastname: Boswell
keywords: Chronic low back pain; Controlled diagnostic blocks; Intraarticular injections; Lumbar discogenic pain; Lumbar facet joint; Lumbar facet joint nerve blocks; Lumbar facet joint pain; Lumbar facet joint radiofrequency