title: Fetal developmental programing: insights from human studies and experimental models.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Environmental factors, particularly nutrition during pregnancy and early life can influence the risk of chronic diseases in later life. The underlying mechanism, termed "programing", postulates that an environmental stimulus during a critical window of time, early in life, has a permanent effect on subsequent structure and function of the organism.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  In this study we review the concept of fetal programing on chronic diseases and the proposed hypotheses for the association between early development and later disease, including epigenetic variation. We concentrate on specific aspects of maternal nutrition, particularly under-nutrition and over-nutrition, in humans and animal models.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  An adequate maternal nutrition during pregnancy is crucial for the health outcome of the offspring at adulthood.
authors.affiliation: a Department of Pathology , Botucatu Medical School, UNESP - Univ. Estadual Paulista , Botucatu , SP , Brazil.
authors.forename: Gisele Aparecida Dionísio
authors.initials: GA
authors.lastname: Lopes
authors.affiliation: b Department of Pharmacology , and.
authors.forename: Vinícius Luís Bertotti
authors.initials: VL
authors.lastname: Ribeiro
authors.affiliation: c Department of Morphology , Institute of Biosciences, UNESP - Univ. Estadual Paulista , Botucatu , SP , Brazil.
authors.forename: Luís Fernando
authors.initials: LF
authors.lastname: Barbisan
authors.affiliation: a Department of Pathology , Botucatu Medical School, UNESP - Univ. Estadual Paulista , Botucatu , SP , Brazil.
authors.forename: Maria Aparecida
authors.initials: MA
authors.lastname: Marchesan Rodrigues
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D002908:Chronic Disease; D003906:Developing Countries; D044127:Epigenesis, Genetic; D005260:Female; D047109:Fetal Development; D006168:Guinea Pigs; D006801:Humans; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D039382:Maternal Nutritional Physiological Phenomena; D023421:Models, Animal; D011247:Pregnancy; D011297:Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects; D051381:Rats; D012307:Risk Factors; D012756:Sheep
keywords: Developing countries; epigenetic process; fetal developmental programing; maternal over-nutrition; maternal under-nutrition