title: Real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging neurofeedback in motor neurorehabilitation.
abstract: Recent developments in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have catalyzed a new field of translational neuroscience. Using fMRI to monitor the aspects of task-related changes in neural activation or brain connectivity, investigators can offer feedback of simple or complex neural signals/patterns back to the participant on a quasireal-time basis [real-time-fMRI-based neurofeedback (rt-fMRI-NF)]. Here, we introduce some background methodology of the new developments in this field and give a perspective on how they may be used in neurorehabilitation in the future.
  
  
  
  The development of rt-fMRI-NF has been used to promote self-regulation of activity in several brain regions and networks. In addition, and unlike other noninvasive techniques, rt-fMRI-NF can access specific subcortical regions and in principle any region that can be monitored using fMRI including the cerebellum, brainstem and spinal cord. In Parkinson's disease and stroke, rt-fMRI-NF has been demonstrated to alter neural activity after the self-regulation training was completed and to modify specific behaviours.
  
  
  
  Future exploitation of rt-fMRI-NF could be used to induce neuroplasticity in brain networks that are involved in certain neurological conditions. However, currently, the use of rt-fMRI-NF in randomized, controlled clinical trials is in its infancy.
authors.affiliation: aMRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Cardiff University School of Medicine, and Cardiff University Brain Imaging Centre, Cardiff bNeurorehabilitation Unit, School of Health, Sport and Bioscience, University of East London, London, UK.
authors.forename: David E J
authors.initials: DE
authors.lastname: Linden
authors.forename: Duncan L
authors.initials: DL
authors.lastname: Turner
mesh_terms: D001921:Brain / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000502:physiology / Q000503:physiopathology; D001927:Brain Diseases / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging* / Q000534:rehabilitation*; D064368:Healthy Volunteers; D006801:Humans; D008279:Magnetic Resonance Imaging / Q000379:methods*; D058765:Neurofeedback / Q000379:methods* / Q000502:physiology; D000066530:Neurological Rehabilitation / Q000379:methods*; D009473:Neuronal Plasticity / Q000502:physiology; D010300:Parkinson Disease / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000534:rehabilitation; D012648:Self Care; D020521:Stroke / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000628:therapy