title: Reducing impacts from ammunitions: A comparative life-cycle assessment of four types of 9mm ammunitions.
abstract: Increase of environmental awareness of the population has pressured research activities in the defence area to cover environment and toxicity issues, where have been considered appropriate manners to reduce the environmental and toxicological impacts of ammunition. One of the adopted approaches to achieve such goal involves the replacement of lead and other heavy metals by alternative materials. However, the consequences of using alternative materials in ammunitions manufacturing are uncertain for the other life-cycle phases and trade-offs can occur. The present paper describes the potential benefits from the replacement of lead in the primer and in the projectile of a 9mm calibre ammunition. For that purpose, it is assessed and compared the environmental and toxicological impacts associated with the life-cycle of four ammunitions: combination of two types of projectiles (steel jacket and lead core; copper and nylon composite) with two types of primers (lead primer; non-lead primer). In addition, some potential improvements for the environmental performance of small calibre ammunition are also presented. To assess the impacts two Life-Cycle Impact Assessment methods are applied: CML for six environmental categories and USEtox to three toxicity categories. Results showed that the conclusion drawn for environmental and toxicological impact categories are distinct. In fact, ammunition production phase presents higher impacts for the environmental categories, whilst the operation phase has a higher impact to the toxicity categories. The substitution of lead in the primer and in the projectile provides a suitable alternative from a toxicology perspective; however, the composite projectile still presents some environmental concerns. The conclusions drawn are important for the procurement (and design) of environmental responsible ammunitions, in order to avoid (or decrease) the impacts for their manufacture and the effects on human health (e.g. shooters) and ecosystems near shooting ranges or hunting areas.
authors.affiliation: ADAI-LAETA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Coimbra, Portugal. Electronic address: carlos.ferreira@dem.uc.pt.
authors.forename: Carlos
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Ferreira
authors.affiliation: ADAI-LAETA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Coimbra, Portugal. Electronic address: jose.baranda@dem.uc.pt.
authors.forename: José
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Ribeiro
authors.affiliation: CINAV - Laboratório Explosivos Marinha, Base Naval de Lisboa - Alfeite, Portugal. Electronic address: saraalmada@netcabo.pt.
authors.forename: Sara
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Almada
authors.affiliation: Military Technical Academy, Romanian Ministry of National Defence, Romania. Electronic address: trotariu@mta.ro.
authors.forename: Traian
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Rotariu
authors.affiliation: ADAI-LAETA, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Coimbra, Portugal. Electronic address: fausto.freire@dem.uc.pt.
authors.forename: Fausto
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Freire
mesh_terms: D004785:Environmental Pollutants / Q000032:analysis*; D053834:Explosive Agents / Q000032:analysis* / Q000145:classification; D005389:Firearms / Q000145:classification; D007854:Lead / Q000032:analysis*
chemical_list: D004785:Environmental Pollutants; D053834:Explosive Agents; D007854:Lead
keywords: Environmental impact; Human health; Life-cycle approach; Small calibre ammunitions