title: Measuring Men's Gender Norms and Gender Role Conflict/Stress in a High HIV-Prevalence South African Setting.
abstract: Gender norms and gender role conflict/stress may influence HIV risk behaviors among men; however scales measuring these constructs need further development and evaluation in African settings. We conducted exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses to evaluate the Gender Equitable Men's Scale (GEMS) and the Gender Role Conflict/Stress (GRC/S) scale among 581 men in rural northeast South Africa. The final 17-item GEMS was unidimensional, with adequate model fit and reliability (alpha = 0.79). Factor loadings were low (0.2-0.3) for items related to violence and sexual relationships. The final 24-item GRC/S scale was multidimensional with four factors: Success, power, competition; Subordination to women; Restrictive emotionality; and Sexual prowess. The scale had adequate model fit and good reliability (alpha = 0.83). While GEMS is a good measure of inequitable gender norms, new or revised scale items may need to be explored in the South African context. Adding the GRC/S scale to capture men's strain related to gender roles could provide important insights into men's risk behaviors.
authors.affiliation: Department of Health Behavior, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA. agottert@live.unc.edu.|Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA. agottert@live.unc.edu.
authors.forename: Ann
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Gottert
authors.affiliation: Department of Health Behavior, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
authors.forename: Clare
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Barrington
authors.affiliation: Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.|MRC/Wits Rural Public Health and Health Transitions Research Unit (Agincourt), School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
authors.forename: Audrey
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Pettifor
authors.affiliation: Department of Health Behavior, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
authors.forename: Heath Luz
authors.initials: HL
authors.lastname: McNaughton-Reyes
authors.affiliation: Department of Health Behavior, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
authors.forename: Suzanne
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Maman
authors.affiliation: MRC/Wits Rural Public Health and Health Transitions Research Unit (Agincourt), School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.|Wits Reproductive Health and HIV Institute (WRHI), University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.|School of Health, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia.
authors.forename: Catherine
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: MacPhail
authors.affiliation: MRC/Wits Rural Public Health and Health Transitions Research Unit (Agincourt), School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.|Umeå Centre for Global Health Research, Division of Epidemiology and Global Health, Department of Public Health and Clinical Medicine, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden.
authors.forename: Kathleen
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Kahn
authors.affiliation: Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
authors.forename: Amanda
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Selin
authors.affiliation: MRC/Wits Rural Public Health and Health Transitions Research Unit (Agincourt), School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
authors.forename: Rhian
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Twine
authors.affiliation: Department of Medicine, University of California at San Francisco, Center for AIDS Prevention Studies (CAPS), San Francisco, CA, USA.
authors.forename: Sheri A
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Lippman
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D005260:Female; D005783:Gender Identity; D006679:HIV Seropositivity; D006801:Humans; D007398:Interpersonal Relations; D008297:Male; D011594:Psychometrics; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012309:Risk-Taking; D012424:Rural Population; D021841:Safe Sex; D012737:Sex Factors; D012725:Sexual Behavior; D013019:South Africa
keywords: Gender role; HIV; Sexual behavior; South Africa; Violence