title: The Antenatal Corticosteroids Trial (ACT): a secondary analysis to explore site differences in a multi-country trial.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The Antenatal Corticosteroid Trial (ACT) assessed the feasibility, effectiveness, and safety of a multifaceted intervention to increase the use of antenatal corticosteroids (ACS) in mothers at risk of preterm birth at all levels of care in low and middle-income countries. The intervention effectively increased the use of ACS but had no overall impact on neonatal mortality in the targeted <5(th) percentile birth weight infants. Being in the intervention clusters was also associated with an overall increase in neonatal deaths. We sought to explore plausible pathways through which this intervention increased neonatal mortality.
  
  
  METHODS
  We conducted secondary analyses to assess site differences in outcome and potential explanations for the differences in outcomes if found. By site, and in the intervention and control clusters, we evaluated characteristics of the mothers and care systems, the proportion of the <5(th) percentile infants and the overall population that received ACS, the rates of possible severe bacterial infection (pSBI), determined from clinical signs, and neonatal mortality rates.
  
  
  RESULTS
  There were substantial differences between the sites in both participant and health system characteristics, with Guatemala and Argentina generally having the highest levels of care. In some sites there were substantial differences in the health system characteristics between the intervention and control clusters. The increase in ACS in the intervention clusters was similar among the sites. While overall, there was no difference in neonatal mortality among <5(th) percentile births between the intervention and control clusters, Guatemala and Pakistan both had significant reductions in neonatal mortality in the <5(th) percentile infants in the intervention clusters. The improvement in neonatal mortality in the Guatemalan site in the <5(th) percentile infants was associated with a higher level of care at the site and an improvement in care in the intervention clusters. There was a significant increase overall in neonatal mortality in the intervention clusters compared to the control. Across sites, this increase in neonatal mortality was statistically significant and most apparent in the African sites. This increase in neonatal mortality was accompanied by a significant increase in pSBI in the African sites.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The improvement in neonatal mortality in the Guatemalan site in the <5(th) percentile infants was associated with a higher level of care and an improvement in care in the intervention clusters. The increase in neonatal mortality in the intervention clusters across all sites was largely driven by the poorer outcomes in the African sites, which also had an increase in pSBI in the intervention clusters. We emphasize that these results come from secondary analyses. Additional prospective studies are needed to assess the effectiveness and safety of ACS on neonatal health in low resource settings.
  
  
  BACKGROUND
  
  
  
  BACKGROUND
  clinicaltrials.gov (NCT01084096).
authors.affiliation: Institute for Clinical Effectiveness and Health Policy (IECS), Buenos Aires, Argentina. kklein@iecs.org.ar.
authors.forename: Karen
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Klein
authors.affiliation: RTI International, Durham, NC, USA.
authors.forename: Elizabeth M
authors.initials: EM
authors.lastname: McClure
authors.affiliation: Institute for Clinical Effectiveness and Health Policy (IECS), Buenos Aires, Argentina.
authors.forename: Daniela
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Colaci
authors.affiliation: RTI International, Durham, NC, USA.
authors.forename: Vanessa
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Thorsten
authors.affiliation: Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.
authors.forename: Patricia L
authors.initials: PL
authors.lastname: Hibberd
authors.affiliation: Moi University School of Medicine, Eldoret, Kenya.
authors.forename: Fabian
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Esamai
authors.affiliation: Fundación para la Alimentación y Nutrición de Centro América y Panamá, Guatemala City, Guatemala.
authors.forename: Ana
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Garces
authors.affiliation: Lata Medical Research Foundation, Indira Gandhi Government Medical College, Nagpur, India.
authors.forename: Archana
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Patel
authors.affiliation: Department of Community Health Sciences, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan.
authors.forename: Sarah
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Saleem
authors.affiliation: Department of Community Health Sciences, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan.
authors.forename: Omrana
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Pasha
authors.affiliation: University Teaching Hospital, Lusaka, Zambia.
authors.forename: Elwyn
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Chomba
authors.affiliation: University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA.
authors.forename: Waldemar A
authors.initials: WA
authors.lastname: Carlo
authors.affiliation: University of Colorado School of Medicine, Denver, Colorado, USA.
authors.forename: Nancy F
authors.initials: NF
authors.lastname: Krebs
authors.affiliation: KLE University's Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College, Belgaum, Karnataka, India.
authors.forename: Shivaprasad
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Goudar
authors.affiliation: Christiana Health Care, Newark, DE, USA.
authors.forename: Richard J
authors.initials: RJ
authors.lastname: Derman
authors.affiliation: School of Medicine, Indiana University, Indianapolis, IN, USA.
authors.forename: Edward A
authors.initials: EA
authors.lastname: Liechty
authors.affiliation: Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, MD, USA.
authors.forename: Marion
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Koso-Thomas
authors.affiliation: Tulane School of Public Health & Tropical Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA.
authors.forename: Pierre M
authors.initials: PM
authors.lastname: Buekens
authors.affiliation: Institute for Clinical Effectiveness and Health Policy (IECS), Buenos Aires, Argentina.
authors.forename: José M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Belizán
authors.affiliation: Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
authors.forename: Robert L
authors.initials: RL
authors.lastname: Goldenberg
authors.affiliation: Institute for Clinical Effectiveness and Health Policy (IECS), Buenos Aires, Argentina.
authors.forename: Fernando
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Althabe
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D017954:Africa South of the Sahara / Q000453:epidemiology; D001208:Asia / Q000453:epidemiology; D036861:Delivery, Obstetric / Q000379:methods; D003906:Developing Countries; D004363:Drug Utilization / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D005240:Feasibility Studies; D005260:Female; D005938:Glucocorticoids / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D007226:Infant Mortality; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D007843:Latin America / Q000453:epidemiology; D008423:Maternal Age; D011247:Pregnancy; D047928:Premature Birth / Q000517:prevention & control; D011295:Prenatal Care / Q000379:methods*; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D005938:Glucocorticoids