title: Nucleic acid biomarkers of β cell stress and death in type 1 diabetes.
abstract: The purpose of this review is to summarize recent advances in the development of nucleic acid-based biomarkers of type 1 diabetes (T1D).
  
  
  
  Recent rodent and human studies have identified new roles for stress pathways intrinsic to the β cell during the development of T1D. As such, methods to identify an authentic nucleic acid signature of β cell stress and/or death may improve our ability to predict T1D at earlier timepoints, allowing for optimal timing of immunomodulatory interventions. To this end, both targeted and unbiased approaches have begun to identify changes in microRNA expression patterns in T1D. Moreover, a number of groups have developed distinct assays that quantitatively detect circulating unmethylated insulin DNA, which is thought to primarily emanate from dying β cells.
  
  
  
  Here we highlight unique blood and urine microRNA signatures identified in T1D cohorts, compare differences between first, second, and third-generation assays that detect circulating unmethylated insulin DNA, and review recent technological advances that have the capacity to improve T1D biomarker development.
authors.affiliation: aDepartment of Pediatrics bDepartment of Medicine cDepartment of Cellular and Integrative Physiology dDepartment of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology eThe Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research, Indiana University School of Medicine fThe Roudebush VA Medical Center, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA.
authors.forename: Farooq
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Syed
authors.forename: Carmella
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Evans-Molina
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000097:blood / Q000652:urine; D003922:Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1 / Q000097:blood* / Q000652:urine*; D006801:Humans; D050417:Insulin-Secreting Cells; D009696:Nucleic Acids / Q000097:blood / Q000652:urine
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D009696:Nucleic Acids