title: Accuracy, Precision, Ease-Of-Use, and Cost of Methods to Test Ebola-Relevant Chlorine Solutions.
abstract: To prevent transmission in Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) outbreaks, it is recommended to disinfect living things (hands and people) with 0.05% chlorine solution and non-living things (surfaces, personal protective equipment, dead bodies) with 0.5% chlorine solution. In the current West African EVD outbreak, these solutions (manufactured from calcium hypochlorite (HTH), sodium dichloroisocyanurate (NaDCC), and sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl)) have been widely used in both Ebola Treatment Unit and community settings. To ensure solution quality, testing is necessary, however test method appropriateness for these Ebola-relevant concentrations has not previously been evaluated. We identified fourteen commercially-available methods to test Ebola-relevant chlorine solution concentrations, including two titration methods, four DPD dilution methods, and six test strips. We assessed these methods by: 1) determining accuracy and precision by measuring in quintuplicate five different 0.05% and 0.5% chlorine solutions manufactured from NaDCC, HTH, and NaOCl; 2) conducting volunteer testing to assess ease-of-use; and, 3) determining costs. Accuracy was greatest in titration methods (reference-12.4% error compared to reference method), then DPD dilution methods (2.4-19% error), then test strips (5.2-48% error); precision followed this same trend. Two methods had an accuracy of <10% error across all five chlorine solutions with good precision: Hach digital titration for 0.05% and 0.5% solutions (recommended for contexts with trained personnel and financial resources), and Serim test strips for 0.05% solutions (recommended for contexts where rapid, inexpensive, and low-training burden testing is needed). Measurement error from test methods not including pH adjustment varied significantly across the five chlorine solutions, which had pH values 5-11. Volunteers found test strip easiest and titration hardest; costs per 100 tests were $14-37 for test strips and $33-609 for titration. Given the ease-of-use and cost benefits of test strips, we recommend further development of test strips robust to pH variation and appropriate for Ebola-relevant chlorine solution concentrations.
authors.affiliation: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, United States of America.
authors.forename: Emma
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Wells
authors.affiliation: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, United States of America.
authors.forename: Marlene K
authors.initials: MK
authors.lastname: Wolfe
authors.affiliation: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, United States of America.
authors.forename: Anna
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Murray
authors.affiliation: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, United States of America.
authors.forename: Daniele
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Lantagne
mesh_terms: D002713:Chlorine; D004196:Disease Outbreaks; D004203:Disinfection / Q000191:economics / Q000379:methods*; D019142:Hemorrhagic Fever, Ebola / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000517:prevention & control* / Q000635:transmission / Q000821:virology; D006801:Humans; D006863:Hydrogen-Ion Concentration; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012996:Solutions
chemical_list: D012996:Solutions; D002713:Chlorine