title: Watering holes: The use of arboreal sources of drinking water by Old World monkeys and apes.
abstract: Water is one of the most important components of an animal's diet, as it is essential for life. Primates, as do most animals, procure water directly from standing or free-flowing sources such as pools, ponds and rivers, or indirectly by the ingestion of certain plant parts. The latter is frequently described as the main source of water for predominantly arboreal species. However, in addition to these, many species are known to drink water accumulated in tree-holes. This has been commonly observed in several arboreal New World primate species, but rarely reported systematically from Old World primates. Here, we report observations of this behaviour from eight great ape and Old World monkey species, namely chimpanzee, orangutan, siamang, western hoolock gibbon, northern pig-tailed macaque, bonnet macaque, rhesus macaque and the central Himalayan langur. We hypothesise three possible reasons why these primates drink water from tree-holes: (1) coping with seasonal or habitat-specific water shortages, (2) predator/human conflict avoidance, and (3) potential medicinal benefits. We also suggest some alternative hypotheses that should be tested in future studies. This behaviour is likely to be more prevalent than currently thought, and may have significant, previously unknown, influences on primate survival and health, warranting further detailed studies.
authors.affiliation: School of Natural Sciences and Engineering, National Institute of Advanced Studies, Indian Institute of Science Campus, Bangalore 560012, Karnataka, India; Nature Conservation Foundation, 2076/5, IV Cross, Gokulam Park, Mysore 570002, Karnataka, India; Department of Environmental Biology and Wildlife Sciences, Cotton College State University, Pan Bazar, Guwahati 781001, Assam, India. Electronic address: narayansharma77@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Narayan
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Sharma
authors.affiliation: Section of Social Systems Evolution, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi 484-8506, Japan. Electronic address: huffman.michael.8n@kyoto-u.ac.jp.
authors.forename: Michael A
authors.initials: MA
authors.lastname: Huffman
authors.affiliation: School of Natural Sciences and Engineering, National Institute of Advanced Studies, Indian Institute of Science Campus, Bangalore 560012, Karnataka, India.
authors.forename: Shreejata
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Gupta
authors.affiliation: School of Natural Sciences and Engineering, National Institute of Advanced Studies, Indian Institute of Science Campus, Bangalore 560012, Karnataka, India.
authors.forename: Himani
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Nautiyal
authors.affiliation: Section of Language and Intelligence, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi 484-8506, Japan.
authors.forename: Renata
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Mendonça
authors.affiliation: Laboratoire de Dynamique de l'Evolution Humaine, UPR 2147, CNRS, Paris, France.
authors.forename: Luca
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Morino
authors.affiliation: School of Natural Sciences and Engineering, National Institute of Advanced Studies, Indian Institute of Science Campus, Bangalore 560012, Karnataka, India; Nature Conservation Foundation, 2076/5, IV Cross, Gokulam Park, Mysore 570002, Karnataka, India.
authors.forename: Anindya
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Sinha
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D002520:Cercopithecidae; D004327:Drinking Behavior; D060766:Drinking Water; D005260:Female; D015186:Hominidae; D008297:Male; D013045:Species Specificity; D014197:Trees
chemical_list: D060766:Drinking Water
keywords: Dipping-and-licking; Predator avoidance; Primate; Seasonal water; Self medication; Tree-hole