title: Blood parasites of penguins: a critical review.
abstract: Blood parasites are considered some of the most significant pathogens for the conservation of penguins, due to the considerable morbidity and mortality they have been shown to produce in captive and wild populations of these birds. Parasites known to occur in the blood of penguins include haemosporidian protozoans (Plasmodium, Leucocytozoon, Haemoproteus), piroplamid protozoans (Babesia), kinetoplastid protozoans (Trypanosoma), spirochete bacteria (Borrelia) and nematode microfilariae. This review provides a critical and comprehensive assessment of the current knowledge on these parasites, providing an overview of their biology, host and geographic distribution, epidemiology, pathology and implications for public health and conservation.
authors.affiliation: Laboratório de Patologia Comparada de Animais Selvagens,Departamento de Patologia,Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia,Universidade de São Paulo,Av. Prof. Dr. Orlando Marques de Paiva 87,São Paulo,SP 05508-270,Brazil.
authors.forename: Ralph Eric Thijl
authors.initials: RE
authors.lastname: Vanstreels
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Parasitologia,Instituto de Ciências Biológicas,Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais,Caixa Postal 486,Avenida Antônio Carlos 6627,Pampulha,Belo Horizonte,MG 31270-901,Brazil.
authors.forename: Érika Martins
authors.initials: ÉM
authors.lastname: Braga
authors.affiliation: Laboratório de Patologia Comparada de Animais Selvagens,Departamento de Patologia,Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia,Universidade de São Paulo,Av. Prof. Dr. Orlando Marques de Paiva 87,São Paulo,SP 05508-270,Brazil.
authors.forename: José Luiz
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Catão-Dias
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001715:Bird Diseases / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000469:parasitology*; D005843:Geography; D016787:Haemosporida / Q000166:cytology / Q000502:physiology; D009348:Nematoda / Q000166:cytology / Q000502:physiology; D009349:Nematode Infections / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000469:parasitology / Q000662:veterinary*; D010271:Parasites / Q000166:cytology / Q000502:physiology*; D010961:Plasmodium / Q000166:cytology / Q000502:physiology; D011529:Protozoan Infections, Animal / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000469:parasitology; D046429:Spheniscidae / Q000469:parasitology*; D014345:Trypanosoma / Q000166:cytology / Q000502:physiology; D014352:Trypanosomiasis / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000469:parasitology / Q000662:veterinary*
keywords: bird; blood parasite; conservation; pathogen; seabird; vector-borne diseases