title: Spatially dense morphometrics of craniofacial sexual dimorphism in 1-year-olds.
abstract: Recent advances in the field of geometric morphometrics allow for powerful statistical hypothesis testing for effects of biological and environmental variables on anatomical shape. This study used partial least-squares regression (PLSR) and the recently developed bootstrapped response-based imputation modelling (BRIM) algorithm to test for sexual dimorphism in the craniofacial shape of 1-year-old humans. We observed a recession of the forehead in boys relative to girls, and differences in the nose, consistent with adult dimorphism. Results also suggest that the degree to which individuals express dimorphic traits is continuous throughout the population. This is also seen in adult dimorphism but in 1-year-olds the amount of overlap between groups is much higher, indicating the strength of dimorphism between sexes is lower. Our results demonstrate early sexual dimorphism that is not attributable to the influx of sex hormones at puberty. This highlights the need to look at very early ontogeny for the origins of sexual dimorphism. We suggest that future work look at potential mediating effects of this early dimorphism on the later impact of puberty. The subtle shape differences we have detected, may also be applied to sexing fossilised crania. A common artefact in 3D images of faces of young children is that they often have their mouths open to varying degrees, introducing variability in the data unrelated to anatomy. We describe two PLSR-based methods of correcting this. These methods may facilitate surgical planning and assessment of young children based on 3D images.
authors.affiliation: Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.|Royal Children's Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.|Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
authors.forename: Harold
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Matthews
authors.affiliation: Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.|Royal Children's Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.|Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
authors.forename: Tony
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Penington
authors.affiliation: Department of Electrical Engineering, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.|ESAT/PSI, Medical Image Computing, UZ Leuven, Medical Imaging Research Center, Leuven, Belgium.
authors.forename: Ine
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Saey
authors.affiliation: Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.|Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
authors.forename: Jane
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Halliday
authors.affiliation: Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.|Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
authors.forename: Evelyn
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Muggli
authors.affiliation: Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.|Department of Electrical Engineering, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.|ESAT/PSI, Medical Image Computing, UZ Leuven, Medical Imaging Research Center, Leuven, Belgium.
authors.forename: Peter
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Claes
mesh_terms: D000465:Algorithms; D005145:Face / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007090:Image Interpretation, Computer-Assisted; D021621:Imaging, Three-Dimensional; D007223:Infant; D016018:Least-Squares Analysis; D008297:Male; D012727:Sex Characteristics; D012886:Skull / Q000033:anatomy & histology*
keywords: craniofacial; infants; morphometrics; partial least-squares regression; pose; sexual dimorphism