title: Markers of anthropogenic contamination: A validated method for quantification of pharmaceuticals, illicit drug metabolites, perfluorinated compounds, and plasticisers in sewage treatment effluent and rain runoff.
abstract: An effective, specific and accurate method is presented for the quantification of 13 markers of anthropogenic contaminants in water using solid phase extraction (SPE) followed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). Validation was conducted according to the International Conference on Harmonisation (ICH) guidelines. Method recoveries ranged from 77 to 114% and limits of quantification between 0.75 and 4.91 ng/L. A study was undertaken to quantify the concentrations and loadings of the selected contaminants in 6 sewage treatment works (STW) effluent discharges as well as concentrations in 5 rain-driven street runoffs and field drainages. Detection frequencies in STW effluent ranged from 25% (ethinylestradiol) to 100% (benzoylecgonine, bisphenol-A (BPA), bisphenol-S (BPS) and diclofenac). Average concentrations of detected compounds in STW effluents ranged from 3.62 ng/L (ethinylestradiol) to 210 ng/L (BPA). Levels of perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) as well as the plasticiser BPA were found in street runoff at maximum levels of 1160 ng/L, 647 ng/L and 2405 ng/L respectively (8.52, 3.09 and 2.7 times more concentrated than maximum levels in STW effluents respectively). Rain-driven street runoff may have an effect on levels of PFCs and plasticisers in receiving rivers and should be further investigated. Together, this method with the 13 selected contaminants enables the quantification of various markers of anthropogenic pollutants: inter alia pharmaceuticals, illicit drugs and their metabolites from humans and improper disposal of drugs, while the plasticisers and perfluorinated compounds may also indicate contamination from industrial and transport activity (street runoff).
authors.affiliation: School of Natural and Built Environments, Kingston University London, Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey, United Kingdom. Electronic address: j.wilkinson@kingston.ac.uk.
authors.forename: John L
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Wilkinson
authors.affiliation: School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University London, Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Julian
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Swinden
authors.affiliation: School of Natural and Built Environments, Kingston University London, Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Peter S
authors.initials: PS
authors.lastname: Hooda
authors.affiliation: School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University London, Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: James
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Barker
authors.affiliation: School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University London, Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Stephen
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Barton
mesh_terms: D001559:Benzhydryl Compounds; D002210:Caprylates / Q000032:analysis; D004784:Environmental Monitoring / Q000379:methods*; D005466:Fluorocarbons / Q000032:analysis; D013287:Illicit Drugs / Q000378:metabolism; D004364:Pharmaceutical Preparations / Q000032:analysis*; D010636:Phenols; D010968:Plasticizers / Q000032:analysis; D011891:Rain / Q000737:chemistry; D045483:Rivers / Q000737:chemistry; D012722:Sewage / Q000737:chemistry; D052616:Solid Phase Extraction; D015813:Substance Abuse Detection / Q000379:methods; D013450:Sulfones; D053719:Tandem Mass Spectrometry; D062065:Wastewater / Q000737:chemistry*; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000032:analysis*; D000098831:Bisphenol S Compounds; D000098826:Bisphenol A Compounds
chemical_list: D001559:Benzhydryl Compounds; D002210:Caprylates; D005466:Fluorocarbons; D013287:Illicit Drugs; D004364:Pharmaceutical Preparations; D010636:Phenols; D010968:Plasticizers; D012722:Sewage; D013450:Sulfones; D062065:Wastewater; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical; C543008:bisphenol S; D000098831:Bisphenol S Compounds; C023036:perfluorooctanoic acid; C006780:bisphenol A; D000098826:Bisphenol A Compounds
keywords: Environmental chemistry; Perfluorinated compounds; Pharmaceuticals and personal care products; Plasticisers; Runoff; Sewage treatment effluent