title: The possible importance of income and education as covariates in cohort studies that investigate the relationship between diet and disease.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Many cohort studies have been carried out that have provided information on the relationship between diet and health-related outcomes. Omission of important covariates during multivariate analysis may give rise to error due to residual confounding. A possibly important covariate is socioeconomic status (SES) as this is related to both diet and health.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To determine the frequency with which different measures of SES are included as covariates during multivariate analysis of cohort studies that investigated the relationship between diet and health.
  
  
  METHODS
  An analysis was carried out of 76 randomly selected papers from 66 cohort studies. The papers covered many dietary variables and a wide variety of diseases/health-related outcomes. The cohort studies were carried out in many different locations and the subjects varied widely in age.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Approximately two-thirds of the papers (65.8%) used at least one measure of SES as a covariate. Education was used most often (60.5% of papers), followed by income (14.4%) and social class (2.6%). More than one measure of SES was used in 11.8% of papers.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Failure to include income (or another measure of present SES, such as occupation) may be a common source of error in cohort studies. Over-reliance on education may be particularly important as it is likely to be a weaker measure of present SES than is income. There is a need for more research on this question. SES in childhood is almost never included in multivariate analysis in cohort studies carried out on adults. This could also play a significant role in disease risk in middle age or later. Very little is known regarding whether this is also a source of residual confounding.
authors.affiliation: Centre for Science, Athabasca University, Alberta, Canada.
authors.forename: Norman
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Temple
keywords: Cohort studies; covariates; socioeconomic status