title: Cytosine deamination and the precipitous decline of spontaneous mutation during Earth's history.
abstract: The hydrolytic deamination of cytosine and 5-methylcytosine residues in DNA appears to contribute significantly to the appearance of spontaneous mutations in microorganisms and in human disease. In the present work, we examined the mechanism of cytosine deamination and the response of the uncatalyzed reaction to changing temperature. The positively charged 1,3-dimethylcytosinium ion was hydrolyzed at a rate similar to the rate of acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of 1-methylcytosine, for which it furnishes a satisfactory kinetic model and a probable mechanism. In agreement with earlier reports, uncatalyzed deamination was found to proceed at very similar rates for cytosine, 1-methylcytosine, cytidine, and cytidine 5'-phosphate, and also for cytosine residues in single-stranded DNA generated from a phagemid, in which we sequenced an insert representing the gene of the HIV-1 protease. Arrhenius plots for the uncatalyzed deamination of cytosine were linear over the temperature range from 90 °C to 200 °C and indicated a heat of activation (ΔH(‡)) of 23.4 ± 0.5 kcal/mol at pH 7. Recent evidence indicates that the surface of the earth has been cool enough to support life for more than 4 billion years and that life has been present for almost as long. If the temperature at Earth's surface is assumed to have followed Newton's law of cooling, declining exponentially from 100 °C to 25 °C during that period, then half of the cytosine-deaminating events per unit biomass would have taken place during the first 0.2 billion years, and <99.4% would have occurred during the first 2 billion years.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599.
authors.forename: Charles A
authors.initials: CA
authors.lastname: Lewis
authors.affiliation: Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599.
authors.forename: Jesse
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Crayle
authors.affiliation: Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599.
authors.forename: Shuntai
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Zhou
authors.affiliation: Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599.
authors.forename: Ronald
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Swanstrom
authors.affiliation: Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 water@med.unc.edu.
authors.forename: Richard
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Wolfenden
mesh_terms: D003596:Cytosine / Q000031:analogs & derivatives / Q000378:metabolism*; D004277:DNA, Single-Stranded / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism; D003641:Deamination; D018534:Earth, Planet; D004926:Escherichia coli / Q000235:genetics; D016333:HIV Protease / Q000235:genetics; D006863:Hydrogen-Ion Concentration; D006868:Hydrolysis; D009154:Mutation; D010957:Plasmids; D013696:Temperature
chemical_list: D004277:DNA, Single-Stranded; D003596:Cytosine; D016333:HIV Protease; C514803:p16 protease, Human immunodeficiency virus 1
keywords: HIV-1 protease; cytosine deamination; heat mutagenesis; spontaneous mutation