title: Protein intake during pregnancy and offspring body composition at 6 years: the Generation R Study.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Intra-uterine exposure to protein may affect body composition and may increase the prevalence of childhood adiposity. Therefore, we examined whether protein intake during pregnancy is associated with offspring body composition at the age of 6 years and whether associations differ for animal protein and vegetable protein.
  
  
  METHODS
  We included 2694 Dutch mother-child pairs participating in a prospective population-based cohort in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. Energy-adjusted protein was measured in pregnancy using a food-frequency questionnaire and analyzed in quartiles. At a mean age of 6.1 ± 0.4 years, we measured children's body mass index, and fat-free mass index and fat mass index using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Outcomes were standardized for age and sex. BMI was used to classify children's overweight status.
  
  
  RESULTS
  After adjustment for sociodemographic and lifestyle factors, a higher maternal protein intake was associated with a higher children's fat-free mass index [difference 0.14 standard deviation (95 % CI 0.03, 0.25) for highest vs. lowest quartile of protein intake], but not with children's fat mass index or body mass index. Comparable associations were found for animal protein and vegetable protein. Maternal protein intake was not associated with children's overweight.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This study suggests that higher protein intake during pregnancy is associated with a higher fat-free mass in children at the age of 6 years, but not with their fat mass. Our results do not suggest specific recommendations regarding maternal protein intake during pregnancy to prevent overweight in the offspring.
authors.affiliation: Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Office Na-2907, PO Box 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands. m.tielemans@erasmusmc.nl.|The Generation R Study Group, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands. m.tielemans@erasmusmc.nl.
authors.forename: Myrte J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Tielemans
authors.affiliation: Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Eric A P
authors.initials: EAP
authors.lastname: Steegers
authors.affiliation: Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Office Na-2907, PO Box 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.|The Generation R Study Group, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Trudy
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Voortman
authors.affiliation: Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Office Na-2907, PO Box 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.|The Generation R Study Group, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.|Department of Pediatrics, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Vincent W V
authors.initials: VWV
authors.lastname: Jaddoe
authors.affiliation: Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Fernando
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Rivadeneira
authors.affiliation: Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Office Na-2907, PO Box 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Oscar H
authors.initials: OH
authors.lastname: Franco
authors.affiliation: Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Office Na-2907, PO Box 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.|Department of Pediatrics, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.|Leiden University College, The Hague, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Jessica C
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Kiefte-de Jong
mesh_terms: D015502:Absorptiometry, Photon; D000328:Adult; D001823:Body Composition; D015992:Body Mass Index; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D004032:Diet; D004044:Dietary Proteins / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D005260:Female; D005500:Follow-Up Studies; D015438:Health Behavior; D006801:Humans; D008019:Life Style; D008297:Male; D039382:Maternal Nutritional Physiological Phenomena; D009426:Netherlands; D063766:Pediatric Obesity / Q000453:epidemiology*; D011247:Pregnancy; D011297:Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects / Q000453:epidemiology*; D015995:Prevalence; D011446:Prospective Studies; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires
chemical_list: D004044:Dietary Proteins
keywords: Body composition; Fetal programming; Obesity; Offspring; Pregnancy; Protein intake