title: Farmers' perception and adaptation practice to climate variability and change: a case study of the Vea catchment in Ghana.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Rain-fed agriculture remains the source of employment for a majority of Ghana's population, particularly in northern Ghana where annual rainfall is low. The purpose of this study is to examine farmers' perceptions and adaptation practices to climate change and variability in accordance with actual recorded weather data of the Vea catchment in Upper East Region of northern Ghana during the time interval from 1972 to 2012.
  
  
  METHODS
  Climatic data over 41-years (1972-2012) from four stations in vicinity of the catchment was evaluated to identify actual weather outcomes. A survey questionnaire targeting farmers with at least 30-years of farming experience in the area was administered in six of the eleven agricultural enumeration areas in the catchment covering 305 km(2). Of the 466 farmers interviewed, 79 % utilized rain-fed practices while 21 % utilized some form of irrigation.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Results indicate that nearly 90 % of the farmers interviewed believe that temperature increased over the past 30-years, while over 94 % of the farmers believe that amount of rainfall, duration, intensity and rainy days has decreased. Nearly 96 % of the farmers believe that their farms are extremely vulnerable to decreased rainfall, droughts and changed timing of rainfall events. Climatic data of the catchment indicates a rising trend in temperature but no long-term changes in annual and monthly rainfall, thereby possibly increasing levels of evapotranspiration. While no statistical differences were found between rain-fed and irrigation agricultural types regarding receipt of external support, their approaches to climatic change adaptation do differ. Patently, 94 and 90 % of farmers relying on rain-fed and irrigation strategies respectively receive some form of support, primarily via extension services. Farmers using rain-fed practices adjust to climate variability by varying crop types via rotation without fertilizer while farmers employing irrigation practices are more likely to offset climate variability with a greater use of fertilizer application.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The Vea catchment faces rising temperature and evapotranspiration trends. Farmers are aware of these climatic changes and are adapting strategies to cope with the effects but require support. Adequate extension services and irrigation facilities are needed to assist farmers in order to sustain their livelihoods on the long run.
authors.affiliation: Graduate Research Program (GRP) Climate Change and Water Resources, West African Science Service Center on Climate Change and Adapted Land Use (WASCAL), University of Abomey-Calavi, Cotonou, Benin.
authors.forename: Andrew Manoba
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Limantol
authors.affiliation: Department of Systems Engineering, Center for Nation Reconstruction and Capacity Development, United States Military Academy, West Point, NY USA.
authors.forename: Bruce Edward
authors.initials: BE
authors.lastname: Keith
authors.affiliation: Department of Planning and Management, University of Development Studies, Wa Campus, Wa, Ghana.
authors.forename: Bismark Atiayure
authors.initials: BA
authors.lastname: Azabre
authors.affiliation: Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany.
authors.forename: Bernd
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Lennartz
keywords: Adaptations; Barriers; Climate change; Farmers’ perception; Vea catchment