title: Crossing Methods and Cultivation Conditions for Rapid Production of Segregating Populations in Three Grain Amaranth Species.
abstract: Grain amaranths (Amaranthus spp.) have been cultivated for thousands of years in Central and South America. Their grains are of high nutritional value, but the low yield needs to be increased by selection of superior genotypes from genetically diverse breeding populations. Amaranths are adapted to harsh conditions and can be cultivated on marginal lands although little is known about their physiology. The development of controlled growing conditions and efficient crossing methods is important for research on and improvement of this ancient crop. Grain amaranth was domesticated in the Americas and is highly self-fertilizing with a large inflorescence consisting of thousands of very small flowers. We evaluated three different crossing methods (open pollination, hot water emasculation and hand emasculation) for their efficiency in amaranth and validated them with genetic markers. We identified cultivation conditions that allow an easy control of flowering time by day length manipulation and achieved flowering times of 4 weeks and generation times of 2 months. All three different crossing methods successfully produced hybrid F1 offspring, but with different success rates. Open pollination had the lowest (10%) and hand emasculation the highest success rate (74%). Hot water emasculation showed an intermediate success rate (26%) with a maximum of 94% success. It is simple to perform and suitable for a more large-scale production of hybrids. We further evaluated 11 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers and found that they were sufficient to validate all crosses of the genotypes used in this study for intra- and interspecific hybridizations. Despite its very small flowers, crosses in amaranth can be carried out efficiently and evaluated with inexpensive SNP markers. Suitable growth conditions strongly reduce the generation time and allow the control of plant height, flowering time, and seed production. In combination, this enables the rapid production of segregating populations which makes amaranth an attractive model for basic plant research but also facilitates further the improvement of this ancient crop by plant breeding.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Plant Breeding, Seed Science and Population Genetics, University of Hohenheim Stuttgart, Germany.
authors.forename: Markus G
authors.initials: MG
authors.lastname: Stetter
authors.affiliation: Institute of Plant Breeding, Seed Science and Population Genetics, University of Hohenheim Stuttgart, Germany.
authors.forename: Leo
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Zeitler
authors.affiliation: Institute of Plant Breeding, Seed Science and Population Genetics, University of Hohenheim Stuttgart, Germany.
authors.forename: Adrian
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Steinhaus
authors.affiliation: Institute of Plant Breeding, Seed Science and Population Genetics, University of Hohenheim Stuttgart, Germany.
authors.forename: Karoline
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Kroener
authors.affiliation: Institute of Plant Breeding, Seed Science and Population Genetics, University of Hohenheim Stuttgart, Germany.
authors.forename: Michelle
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Biljecki
authors.affiliation: Institute of Plant Breeding, Seed Science and Population Genetics, University of Hohenheim Stuttgart, Germany.
authors.forename: Karl J
authors.initials: KJ
authors.lastname: Schmid
keywords: amaranth; genetic resources; hand emasculation; hot water emasculation; hybridization; marker assisted breeding