title: Low prevalence of Plasmodium malariae and Plasmodium ovale mono-infections among children in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: a population-based, cross-sectional study.
abstract: In an effort to improve surveillance for epidemiological and clinical outcomes, rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) have become increasingly widespread as cost-effective and field-ready methods of malaria diagnosis. However, there are concerns that using RDTs specific to Plasmodium falciparum may lead to missed detection of other malaria species such as Plasmodium malariae and Plasmodium ovale.
  
  
  
  Four hundred and sixty six samples were selected from children under 5 years old in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) who took part in a Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) in 2013-14. These samples were first tested for all Plasmodium species using an 18S ribosomal RNA-targeted real-time PCR; malaria-positive samples were then tested for P. falciparum, P. malariae and P. ovale using a highly sensitive nested PCR.
  
  
  
  The prevalence of P. falciparum, P. malariae and P. ovale were 46.6, 12.9 and 8.3 %, respectively. Most P. malariae and P. ovale infections were co-infected with P. falciparum-the prevalence of mono-infections of these species were only 1.0 and 0.6 %, respectively. Six out of these eight mono-infections were negative by RDT. The prevalence of P. falciparum by the more sensitive nested PCR was higher than that found previously by real-time PCR.
  
  
  
  Plasmodium malariae and P. ovale remain endemic at a low rate in the DRC, but the risk of missing malarial infections of these species due to falciparum-specific RDT use is low. The observed prevalence of P. falciparum is higher with a more sensitive PCR method.
authors.affiliation: Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7435, USA.
authors.forename: Stephanie M
authors.initials: SM
authors.lastname: Doctor
authors.affiliation: Department of Statistics and Operations Research, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA.
authors.forename: Yunhao
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Liu
authors.affiliation: Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7435, USA.
authors.forename: Olivia G
authors.initials: OG
authors.lastname: Anderson
authors.affiliation: Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7435, USA.
authors.forename: Amy N
authors.initials: AN
authors.lastname: Whitesell
authors.affiliation: Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7435, USA.|Ecole de Santé Publique, Faculté de Medecine, Université de Kinshasa, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
authors.forename: Melchior Kashamuka
authors.initials: MK
authors.lastname: Mwandagalirwa
authors.affiliation: Programme National de Lutte contre le SIDA et les IST, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
authors.forename: Jérémie
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Muwonga
authors.affiliation: Department of Geography, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA.
authors.forename: Corinna
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Keeler
authors.affiliation: Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7435, USA.|Department of Geography, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA.
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Emch
authors.affiliation: Programme National de Lutte contre le Paludisme, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
authors.forename: Joris L
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Likwela
authors.affiliation: Ecole de Santé Publique, Faculté de Medecine, Université de Kinshasa, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
authors.forename: Antoinette
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Tshefu
authors.affiliation: Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7435, USA. meshnick@email.unc.edu.
authors.forename: Steven R
authors.initials: SR
authors.lastname: Meshnick
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D002675:Child, Preschool; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D015023:Democratic Republic of the Congo / Q000453:epidemiology; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D008288:Malaria / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000469:parasitology; D008297:Male; D010965:Plasmodium malariae / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D041122:Plasmodium ovale / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D016133:Polymerase Chain Reaction; D015995:Prevalence; D016053:RNA, Protozoan / Q000235:genetics; D012337:RNA, Ribosomal, 18S / Q000235:genetics; D060888:Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction
chemical_list: D016053:RNA, Protozoan; D012337:RNA, Ribosomal, 18S
keywords: Democratic Republic of the Congo; Plasmodium malariae; Plasmodium ovale; Rapid diagnostic test