title: Executive function deficits associated with current and past major depressive symptoms.
abstract: Although there has been extensive research showing that depression is associated with executive function (EF) deficits, the nature of these deficits is not clearly delineated. Specifically, previous reviews on this topic have yielded different conclusions about the particular domains of EF that are disrupted in depressed individuals. Further, research on whether these deficits persist after depressed mood has remitted is less prevalent and not consistent.
  
  
  
  In two independent samples of college students, we examined associations between clinical ratings of current and past symptoms of a Major Depressive Episode (MDE) and difficulties in two domains of EF: inhibition and shifting. In Study 1 (n=162), EF was measured using behavioral tasks shown to index these two domains. In Study 2 (n=95), EF was measured using a self-report questionnaire believed to capture EF difficulties experienced in daily life.
  
  
  
  In both studies, past MDE symptoms were associated with worse shifting. In contrast, current MDE symptoms were associated with worse inhibition, though only on the behavioral measure (in Study 1).
  
  
  
  Both studies used college samples and retrospective assessments of past symptoms. Further, only two domains of EF were examined, and the EF measures employed in each study have their own unique methodological limitations.
  
  
  
  Findings suggest that inhibition deficits vary as a function of current symptoms and thus may be a by-product of distress rather than a causal contributor. In contrast, shifting deficits associated with depression appear to be more enduring, suggesting that they could contribute to risk for depression.
authors.affiliation: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, United States; University of Pennsylvania, United States. Electronic address: kbred@mail.med.upenn.edu.
authors.forename: Keith
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Bredemeier
authors.affiliation: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, United States; Palo Alto University, United States.
authors.forename: Stacie L
authors.initials: SL
authors.lastname: Warren
authors.affiliation: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, United States.
authors.forename: Howard
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Berenbaum
authors.affiliation: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, United States; University of California, Los Angeles, United States.
authors.forename: Gregory A
authors.initials: GA
authors.lastname: Miller
authors.affiliation: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, United States.
authors.forename: Wendy
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Heller
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D003865:Major Depressive Disorder / Q000503:physiopathology* / Q000523:psychology; D056344:Executive Function / Q000502:physiology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007266:Inhibition, Psychological; D008297:Male; D008606:Mental Processes / Q000502:physiology; D012189:Retrospective Studies; D057566:Self Report; D013334:Students / Q000523:psychology; D055815:Young Adult
keywords: Depression; Executive function; Inhibition; Mood; Shifting