title: Self-monitoring and self-management of oral anticoagulation.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The introduction of point-of-care devices for the management of patients on oral anticoagulation allows self-testing by the patient at home. Patients who self-test can either adjust their medication according to a pre-determined dose-INR (international normalized ratio) schedule (self-management), or they can call a clinic to be told the appropriate dose adjustment (self-monitoring). Increasing evidence suggests self-testing of oral anticoagulant therapy is equal to or better than standard monitoring. This is an updated version of the original review published in 2010.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To evaluate the effects on thrombotic events, major haemorrhages, and all-cause mortality of self-monitoring or self-management of oral anticoagulant therapy compared to standard monitoring.
  
  
  METHODS
  For this review update, we re-ran the searches of the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), 2015, Issue 6, the Cochrane Library, MEDLINE (Ovid, 1946 to June week 4 2015), Embase (Ovid, 1980 to 2015 week 27) on 1 July 2015. We checked bibliographies and contacted manufacturers and authors of relevant studies. We did not apply any language restrictions .
  
  
  METHODS
  Outcomes analysed were thromboembolic events, mortality, major haemorrhage, minor haemorrhage, tests in therapeutic range, frequency of testing, and feasibility of self-monitoring and self-management.
  
  
  METHODS
  Review authors independently extracted data and we used a fixed-effect model with the Mantzel-Haenzel method to calculate the pooled risk ratio (RR) and Peto's method to verify the results for uncommon outcomes. We examined heterogeneity amongst studies with the Chi(2) and I(2) statistics and used GRADE methodology to assess the quality of evidence.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We identified 28 randomised trials including 8950 participants (newly incorporated in this update: 10 trials including 4227 participants). The overall quality of the evidence was generally low to moderate. Pooled estimates showed a reduction in thromboembolic events (RR 0.58, 95% CI 0.45 to 0.75; participants = 7594; studies = 18; moderate quality of evidence). Both, trials of self-management or self-monitoring showed reductions in thromboembolic events (RR 0.47, 95% CI 0.31 to 0.70; participants = 3497; studies = 11) and (RR 0.69, 95% CI 0.49 to 0.97; participants = 4097; studies = 7), respectively; the quality of evidence for both interventions was moderate. No reduction in all-cause mortality was found (RR 0.85, 95% CI 0.71 to 1.01; participants = 6358; studies = 11; moderate quality of evidence). While self-management caused a reduction in all-cause mortality (RR 0.55, 95% CI 0.36 to 0.84; participants = 3058; studies = 8); self-monitoring did not (RR 0.94, 95% CI 0.78 to 1.15; participants = 3300; studies = 3); the quality of evidence for both interventions was moderate. In 20 trials (8018 participants) self-monitoring or self-management did not reduce major haemorrhage (RR 0.95, 95% CI, 0.80 to 1.12; moderate quality of evidence). There was no significant difference found for minor haemorrhage (RR 0.97, 95% CI 0.67 to 1.41; participants = 5365; studies = 13). The quality of evidence was graded as low because of serious risk of bias and substantial heterogeneity (I(2) = 82%).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Participants who self-monitor or self-manage can improve the quality of their oral anticoagulation therapy. Thromboembolic events were reduced, for both those self-monitoring or self-managing oral anticoagulation therapy. A reduction in all-cause mortality was observed in trials of self-management but not in self-monitoring, with no effects on major haemorrhage.
authors.affiliation: Nuffield Department of Primary Care Health Sciences, University of Oxford, New Radcliffe House, Radcliffe Observatory Quarter, Oxford, Oxfordshire, UK, OX2 6GG.
authors.forename: Carl J
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: Heneghan
authors.forename: Josep M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Garcia-Alamino
authors.forename: Elizabeth A
authors.initials: EA
authors.lastname: Spencer
authors.forename: Alison M
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Ward
authors.forename: Rafael
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Perera
authors.forename: Clare
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Bankhead
authors.forename: Pablo
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Alonso-Coello
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Fitzmaurice
authors.forename: Kamal R
authors.initials: KR
authors.lastname: Mahtani
authors.forename: Igho J
authors.initials: IJ
authors.lastname: Onakpoya
mesh_terms: D000284:Administration, Oral; D000328:Adult; D000925:Anticoagulants / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D002423:Cause of Death; D002648:Child; D006470:Hemorrhage / Q000401:mortality / Q000517:prevention & control; D006801:Humans; D019934:International Normalized Ratio; D019095:Point-of-Care Systems; D016032:Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic; D018570:Risk Assessment; D012648:Self Care / Q000379:methods*; D013923:Thromboembolism / Q000401:mortality / Q000517:prevention & control*
chemical_list: D000925:Anticoagulants