title: Nanoanalytical Electron Microscopy Reveals a Sequential Mineralization Process Involving Carbonate-Containing Amorphous Precursors.
abstract: A direct observation and an in-depth characterization of the steps by which bone mineral nucleates and grows in the extracellular matrix during the earliest stages of maturation, using relevant biomineralization models as they grow into mature bone mineral, is an important research goal. To better understand the process of bone mineralization in the extracellular matrix, we used nanoanalytical electron microscopy techniques to examine an in vitro model of bone formation. This study demonstrates the presence of three dominant CaP structures in the mineralizing osteoblast cultures: <80 nm dense granules with a low calcium to phosphate ratio (Ca/P) and crystalline domains; calcium phosphate needles emanating from a focus: "needle-like globules" (100-300 nm in diameter) and mature mineral, both with statistically higher Ca/P compared to that of the dense granules. Many of the submicron granules and globules were interspersed around fibrillar structures containing nitrogen, which are most likely the signature of the organic phase. With high spatial resolution electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) mapping, spatially resolved maps were acquired showing the distribution of carbonate within each mineral structure. The carbonate was located in the middle of the granules, which suggested the nucleation of the younger mineral starts with a carbonate-containing precursor and that this precursor may act as seed for growth into larger, submicron-sized, needle-like globules of hydroxyapatite with a different stoichiometry. Application of analytical electron microscopy has important implications in deciphering both how normal bone forms and in understanding pathological mineralization.
authors.forename: Kharissa
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Nitiputri
authors.affiliation: SuperSTEM Laboratory, SciTech Daresbury Campus, Daresbury, Halton WA4 4AD, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Quentin M
authors.initials: QM
authors.lastname: Ramasse
authors.forename: Hélène
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Autefage
authors.forename: Catriona M
authors.initials: CM
authors.lastname: McGilvery
authors.forename: Suwimon
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Boonrungsiman
authors.affiliation: Department of Bioengineering and Institute for Life Sciences, University of Southampton , Southampton SO17 1BJ, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Nicholas D
authors.initials: ND
authors.lastname: Evans
authors.forename: Molly M
authors.initials: MM
authors.lastname: Stevens
authors.forename: Alexandra E
authors.initials: AE
authors.lastname: Porter
keywords: bone; calcium phosphate precursor; carbonate; electron energy loss spectroscopy; mineralization