title: Observer-Based Human Knee Stiffness Estimation.
abstract: We consider the problem of stiffness estimation for the human knee joint during motion in the sagittal plane.
  
  
  
  The new stiffness estimator uses a nonlinear reduced-order biomechanical model and a body sensor network (BSN). The developed model is based on a two-dimensional knee kinematics approach to calculate the angle-dependent lever arms and the torques of the muscle-tendon-complex. To minimize errors in the knee stiffness estimation procedure that result from model uncertainties, a nonlinear observer is developed. The observer uses the electromyogram (EMG) of involved muscles as input signals and the segmental orientation as the output signal to correct the observer-internal states. Because of dominating model nonlinearities and nonsmoothness of the corresponding nonlinear functions, an unscented Kalman filter is designed to compute and update the observer feedback (Kalman) gain matrix.
  
  
  
  The observer-based stiffness estimation algorithm is subsequently evaluated in simulations and in a test bench, specifically designed to provide robotic movement support for the human knee joint.
  
  
  
  In silico and experimental validation underline the good performance of the knee stiffness estimation even in the cases of a knee stiffening due to antagonistic coactivation.
  
  
  
  We have shown the principle function of an observer-based approach to knee stiffness estimation that employs EMG signals and segmental orientation provided by our own IPANEMA BSN. The presented approach makes realtime, model-based estimation of knee stiffness with minimal instrumentation possible.
authors.forename: Berno J E
authors.initials: BJE
authors.lastname: Misgeld
authors.forename: Markus
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Luken
authors.forename: Robert
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Riener
authors.forename: Steffen
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Leonhardt
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D003198:Computer Simulation; D055119:Elastic Modulus / Q000502:physiology*; D006801:Humans; D007719:Knee Joint / Q000502:physiology*; D008124:Locomotion / Q000502:physiology*; D008297:Male; D008954:Models, Biological; D018670:Monitoring, Ambulatory / Q000379:methods; D009119:Muscle Contraction / Q000502:physiology*; D018482:Muscle, Skeletal / Q000502:physiology*; D016059:Range of Motion, Articular / Q000502:physiology; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012680:Sensitivity and Specificity; D013314:Stress, Mechanical