title: Reproductive Health Assessment of Female Elephants in North American Zoos and Association of Husbandry Practices with Reproductive Dysfunction in African Elephants (Loxodonta africana).
abstract: As part of a multi-institutional study of zoo elephant welfare, we evaluated female elephants managed by zoos accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums and applied epidemiological methods to determine what factors in the zoo environment are associated with reproductive problems, including ovarian acyclicity and hyperprolactinemia. Bi-weekly blood samples were collected from 95 African (Loxodonta africana) and 75 Asian (Elephas maximus) (8-55 years of age) elephants over a 12-month period for analysis of serum progestogens and prolactin. Females were categorized as normal cycling (regular 13- to 17-week cycles), irregular cycling (cycles longer or shorter than normal) or acyclic (baseline progestogens, <0.1 ng/ml throughout), and having Low/Normal (<14 or 18 ng/ml) or High (≥14 or 18 ng/ml) prolactin for Asian and African elephants, respectively. Rates of normal cycling, acyclicity and irregular cycling were 73.2, 22.5 and 4.2% for Asian, and 48.4, 37.9 and 13.7% for African elephants, respectively, all of which differed between species (P < 0.05). For African elephants, univariate assessment found that social isolation decreased and higher enrichment diversity increased the chance a female would cycle normally. The strongest multi-variable models included Age (positive) and Enrichment Diversity (negative) as important factors of acyclicity among African elephants. The Asian elephant data set was not robust enough to support multi-variable analyses of cyclicity status. Additionally, only 3% of Asian elephants were found to be hyperprolactinemic as compared to 28% of Africans, so predictive analyses of prolactin status were conducted on African elephants only. The strongest multi-variable model included Age (positive), Enrichment Diversity (negative), Alternate Feeding Methods (negative) and Social Group Contact (positive) as predictors of hyperprolactinemia. In summary, the incidence of ovarian cycle problems and hyperprolactinemia predominantly affects African elephants, and increases in social stability and feeding and enrichment diversity may have positive influences on hormone status.
authors.affiliation: Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, Virginia, United States of America.
authors.forename: Janine L
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Brown
authors.affiliation: Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, Virginia, United States of America.
authors.forename: Stephen
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Paris
authors.affiliation: Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, Virginia, United States of America.
authors.forename: Natalia A
authors.initials: NA
authors.lastname: Prado-Oviedo
authors.affiliation: AWARE Institute, Portland, Oregon, United States of America.
authors.forename: Cheryl L
authors.initials: CL
authors.lastname: Meehan
authors.affiliation: AWARE Institute, Portland, Oregon, United States of America.
authors.forename: Jennifer N
authors.initials: JN
authors.lastname: Hogan
authors.affiliation: Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, Virginia, United States of America.|Lincoln Children's Zoo, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America.
authors.forename: Kari A
authors.initials: KA
authors.lastname: Morfeld
authors.affiliation: Portland, OR, United States of America.
authors.forename: Kathy
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Carlstead
mesh_terms: D000367:Age Factors; D000822:Animal Husbandry / Q000592:standards*; D000827:Animal Welfare; D000818:Animals; D000836:Animals, Zoo / Q000502:physiology*; D004606:Elephants / Q000097:blood / Q000502:physiology*; D030762:Estrous Cycle / Q000502:physiology; D005260:Female; D006799:Housing, Animal; D011372:Progestins / Q000097:blood; D011388:Prolactin / Q000097:blood; D012098:Reproduction / Q000502:physiology*; D012931:Social Environment; D012934:Social Isolation; D014481:United States
chemical_list: D011372:Progestins; D011388:Prolactin