title: Housing and Social Environments of African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) Elephants in North American Zoos.
abstract: We evaluated 255 African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants living in 68 North American zoos over one year to quantify housing and social variables. All parameters were quantified for the both the day and the night and comparisons were made across these time periods as well as by species and sex. To assess housing, we evaluated not only total exhibit size, but also individual animals' experiences based on the time they spent in the unique environments into which the exhibits were subdivided. Variables developed to assess housing included measurements of area as a function of time (Total Space Experience), environment type (Indoor, Outdoor, In/Out Choice) and time spent on hard and soft flooring. Over the year, Total Space Experience values ranged from 1,273 square feet to 169,692 square feet, with Day values significantly greater than Night values (p<0.001). Elephants spent an average of 55.1% of their time outdoors, 28.9% indoors, and 16% in areas with a choice between being in or out. Time spent on hard flooring substrate ranged from 0% to 66.7%, with Night values significantly greater than Day (p<0.001). Social factors included number of animals functionally housed together (Social Experience) and social group characteristics such as time spent with juveniles and in mixed-sex groups. Overall Social Experience scores ranged from 1 to 11.2 and were significantly greater during the Day than at Night (p<0.001). There were few significant social or housing differences between African (N = 138) and Asian (N = 117) species or between males (N = 54) and females (N = 201). The most notable exception was Total Space Experience, with African and male elephants having larger Total Space Experience than Asian and female elephants, respectively (P-value<0.05). The housing and social variables evaluated herein have been used in a series of subsequent epidemiological analyses relating to various elephant welfare outcomes.
authors.affiliation: AWARE Institute, Portland, Oregon, United States of America.
authors.forename: Cheryl L
authors.initials: CL
authors.lastname: Meehan
authors.affiliation: AWARE Institute, Portland, Oregon, United States of America.
authors.forename: Jennifer N
authors.initials: JN
authors.lastname: Hogan
authors.affiliation: Department of Animal Science and Center for Animal Welfare, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America.
authors.forename: Mary K
authors.initials: MK
authors.lastname: Bonaparte-Saller
authors.affiliation: Department of Animal Science and Center for Animal Welfare, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America.
authors.forename: Joy A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Mench
mesh_terms: D000827:Animal Welfare / Q000592:standards*; D000818:Animals; D000836:Animals, Zoo; D004606:Elephants; D005260:Female; D006799:Housing, Animal / Q000592:standards*; D008297:Male; D012737:Sex Factors; D012931:Social Environment; D013045:Species Specificity; D014481:United States