title: The intestinal barrier as an emerging target in the toxicological assessment of mycotoxins.
abstract: Mycotoxins, the secondary metabolites of fungal species, are the most frequently occurring natural food contaminants in human and animal diets. Risk assessment of mycotoxins focused as yet on their mutagenic, genotoxic and potential carcinogenic effects. Recently, there is an increasing awareness of the adverse effects of various mycotoxins on vulnerable structures in the intestines. In particular, an impairment of the barrier function of the epithelial lining cells and the sealing tight junction proteins has been noted, as this could result in an increased translocation of luminal antigens and pathogens and an excessive activation of the immune system. The current review aims to provide a summary of the available evidence regarding direct effects of various mycotoxins on the intestinal epithelial barrier. Available data, based on different cellular and animal studies, show that food-associated exposure to certain mycotoxins, especially trichothecenes and patulin, affects the intestinal barrier integrity and can result in an increased translocation of harmful stressors. It is therefore hypothesized that human exposure to certain mycotoxins, particularly deoxynivalenol, as the major trichothecene, may play an important role in etiology of various chronic intestinal inflammatory diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease, and in the prevalence of food allergies, particularly in children.
authors.affiliation: Division of Veterinary Pharmacology, Pharmacotherapy and Toxicology, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 104, 3584 CM, Utrecht, The Netherlands.|Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, 3584 CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Peyman
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Akbari
authors.affiliation: Division of Veterinary Pharmacology, Pharmacotherapy and Toxicology, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 104, 3584 CM, Utrecht, The Netherlands. s.braber@uu.nl.
authors.forename: Saskia
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Braber
authors.affiliation: Division of Veterinary Pharmacology, Pharmacotherapy and Toxicology, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 104, 3584 CM, Utrecht, The Netherlands.|Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, 3584 CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Soheil
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Varasteh
authors.affiliation: Division of Veterinary Pharmacology, Pharmacotherapy and Toxicology, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 104, 3584 CM, Utrecht, The Netherlands.|Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, 3584 CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Arash
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Alizadeh
authors.affiliation: Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, 3584 CG, Utrecht, The Netherlands.|Nutricia Research, 3584 CT, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Johan
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Garssen
authors.affiliation: Division of Veterinary Pharmacology, Pharmacotherapy and Toxicology, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 104, 3584 CM, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Johanna
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Fink-Gremmels
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D018938:Caco-2 Cells / Q000187:drug effects; D017097:Electric Impedance; D006801:Humans; D007422:Intestines / Q000187:drug effects*; D009183:Mycotoxins / Q000493:pharmacokinetics / Q000633:toxicity*; D009924:Organ Culture Techniques; D010539:Permeability / Q000187:drug effects; D018675:Toxicity Tests / Q000379:methods*
chemical_list: D009183:Mycotoxins
keywords: Intestinal permeability; Mucosal inflammation; Mycotoxins; Tight junction proteins