title: Vancomycin gene selection in the microbiome of urban Rattus norvegicus from hospital environment.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Widespread use of antibiotics has resulted in selection pressure on genes that make bacteria non-responsive to antibiotics. These antibiotic-resistant bacteria are currently a major threat to global health. There are various possibilities for the transfer of antibiotic resistance genes. It has been argued that animal vectors such as Rattus norvegicus (R. norvegicus) living in hospital sewage systems are ideal for carrying pathogens responsible for fatal diseases in humans.
  
  
  METHODS
  Using a metagenomic sequencing approach, we investigated faecal samples of R. norvegicus from three major cities for the presence of antibiotic resistance genes.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We show that despite the shared resistome within samples from the same geographic locations, samples from hospital area carry significantly abundant vancomycin resistance genes.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The observed pattern is consistent with a selection for vancomycin genes in the R. norvegicus microbiome, potentially driven by the outflow of antibiotics and antibiotic-resistant bacteria into the wastewater systems. Carriage of vancomycin resistance may suggest that R. norvegicus is acting as a reservoir for possible transmission to the human population.
authors.affiliation: Centre for GeoGenetics, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, DK-1350, Denmark;
authors.forename: Thomas Arn
authors.initials: TA
authors.lastname: Hansen
authors.affiliation: Center for Biological Sequence Analysis, Department of Systems Biology, Technical University of Denmark, Kemitorvet, 2800, Kgs, Lyngby, Denmark;
authors.forename: Tejal
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Joshi
authors.affiliation: Department of Microbiology & Infection Control, Statens Serum Institut;
authors.forename: Anders Rhod
authors.initials: AR
authors.lastname: Larsen
authors.affiliation: Department of Microbiology & Infection Control, Statens Serum Institut;
authors.forename: Paal Skytt
authors.initials: PS
authors.lastname: Andersen
authors.affiliation: Centre for GeoGenetics, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, DK-1350, Denmark;
authors.forename: Klaus
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Harms
authors.affiliation: Centre for GeoGenetics, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, DK-1350, Denmark;
authors.forename: Sarah
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Mollerup
authors.affiliation: Centre for GeoGenetics, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, DK-1350, Denmark;
authors.forename: Eske
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Willerslev
authors.affiliation: Department of Microbiology & Infection Control, Statens Serum Institut;
authors.forename: Kurt
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Fuursted
authors.affiliation: Department of Autoimmunology and Biomarkers, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen S, DK-2300, Denmark.
authors.forename: Lars Peter
authors.initials: LP
authors.lastname: Nielsen
authors.affiliation: Centre for GeoGenetics, Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, DK-1350, Denmark; ajhansen@snm.ku.dk.
authors.forename: Anders Johannes
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Hansen
keywords: Rattus; antibiotics; metagenomics; rats; selection; vanb; vancomycin; wild