title: The Glasgow-Maastricht foot model, evaluation of a 26 segment kinematic model of the foot.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Accurately measuring of intrinsic foot kinematics using skin mounted markers is difficult, limited in part by the physical dimensions of the foot. Existing kinematic foot models solve this problem by combining multiple bones into idealized rigid segments. This study presents a novel foot model that allows the motion of the 26 bones to be individually estimated via a combination of partial joint constraints and coupling the motion of separate joints using kinematic rhythms.
  
  
  METHODS
  Segmented CT data from one healthy subject was used to create a template Glasgow-Maastricht foot model (GM-model). Following this, the template was scaled to produce subject-specific models for five additional healthy participants using a surface scan of the foot and ankle. Forty-three skin mounted markers, mainly positioned around the foot and ankle, were used to capture the stance phase of the right foot of the six healthy participants during walking. The GM-model was then applied to calculate the intrinsic foot kinematics.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Distinct motion patterns where found for all joints. The variability in outcome depended on the location of the joint, with reasonable results for sagittal plane motions and poor results for transverse plane motions.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The results of the GM-model were comparable with existing literature, including bone pin studies, with respect to the range of motion, motion pattern and timing of the motion in the studied joints. This novel model is the most complete kinematic model to date. Further evaluation of the model is warranted.
authors.affiliation: NUTRIM, Department of Human Movement Sciences, Maastricht University Medical Centre +, PO 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands ; CAPHRI, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Maastricht University Medical Centre +, PO 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Michiel
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Oosterwaal
authors.affiliation: AnyBody Technology A/S, Niels Jernes Vej 10, DK-9220 Aalborg East, Denmark.
authors.forename: Sylvain
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Carbes
authors.affiliation: The Institute for Applied Health Research, Glasgow Caledonian University, Cowcaddens Road, Glasgow, UK.
authors.forename: Scott
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Telfer
authors.affiliation: The Institute for Applied Health Research, Glasgow Caledonian University, Cowcaddens Road, Glasgow, UK.
authors.forename: James
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Woodburn
authors.affiliation: AnyBody Technology A/S, Niels Jernes Vej 10, DK-9220 Aalborg East, Denmark.
authors.forename: Søren
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Tørholm
authors.affiliation: AnyBody Technology A/S, Niels Jernes Vej 10, DK-9220 Aalborg East, Denmark.
authors.forename: Amir A
authors.initials: AA
authors.lastname: Al-Munajjed
authors.affiliation: CAPHRI, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Maastricht University Medical Centre +, PO 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Lodewijk
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: van Rhijn
authors.affiliation: NUTRIM, Department of Human Movement Sciences, Maastricht University Medical Centre +, PO 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Kenneth
authors.identifier: 0000-0001-8236-8754
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Meijer
mesh_terms: D000886:Anthropometry / Q000379:methods; D001696:Biomechanical Phenomena; D005260:Female; D005528:Foot / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000502:physiology*; D005529:Foot Bones / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000502:physiology; D033023:Foot Joints / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000502:physiology; D005684:Gait / Q000502:physiology; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008954:Models, Biological; D016059:Range of Motion, Articular / Q000502:physiology; D014057:Tomography, X-Ray Computed
keywords: Gait analysis; Kinematic foot model; Multi-segment foot model