title: Measurement of voluntary activation based on transcranial magnetic stimulation over the motor cortex.
abstract: This article reviews the use of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) over the motor cortex to make estimates of the level of voluntary drive to muscles. The method, described in 2003 (Todd et al. J Physiol 551: 661-671, 2003), uses a TMS pulse to produce descending corticospinal volleys that synaptically activate motoneurons, resulting in a muscle twitch. Linear regression of the superimposed twitch amplitude and voluntary force (or torque) can generate an "estimated" resting twitch for muscles involved in a task. This procedure has most commonly been applied to elbow flexors but also to knee extensors and other muscle groups. Data from 44 papers using the method were tabulated. We identify and discuss five major technical challenges, and the frequency with which they are addressed. The technical challenges include inadvertent activation of the cortical representation of antagonist muscles, the role of antagonist torques at the studied joint, uncertainty about the effectiveness of the TMS pulse in activating the motoneuron pool, the linearity of the voluntary force (or torque) and superimposed twitch relationship, and variability in the TMS-evoked EMG and force/torque responses. The ideal situation in which the descending corticospinal volleys recruit all of the agonist motoneurons and none of the antagonist motoneurons is unlikely to ever occur, and hence results must be carefully examined to assess the authenticity of the voluntary activation estimates in the context of the experimental design. A partial compromise lies in the choice of stimulus intensity. We also identify aspects of the procedure that require further investigation.
authors.affiliation: School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences and Sansom Institute for Health Research, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia;
authors.forename: Gabrielle
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Todd
authors.affiliation: Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, NSW, Australia; and University of New South Wales, Kensington, NSW, Australia.
authors.forename: Janet L
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Taylor
authors.affiliation: Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, NSW, Australia; and University of New South Wales, Kensington, NSW, Australia s.gandevia@neura.edu.au.
authors.forename: Simon C
authors.initials: SC
authors.lastname: Gandevia
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D004576:Electromyography / Q000379:methods*; D019054:Evoked Potentials, Motor / Q000502:physiology; D006801:Humans; D009044:Motor Cortex / Q000502:physiology*; D009068:Movement / Q000502:physiology*; D009119:Muscle Contraction / Q000502:physiology*; D018482:Muscle, Skeletal / Q000294:innervation / Q000502:physiology*; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012680:Sensitivity and Specificity; D050781:Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation / Q000379:methods*; D014836:Volition / Q000502:physiology*
keywords: motor cortex; transcranial magnetic stimulation; voluntary activation