title: Integration of Genetic and Phenotypic Data in 48 Lineages of Philippine Birds Shows Heterogeneous Divergence Processes and Numerous Cryptic Species.
abstract: The Philippine Islands are one of the most biologically diverse archipelagoes in the world. Current taxonomy, however, may underestimate levels of avian diversity and endemism in these islands. Although species limits can be difficult to determine among allopatric populations, quantitative methods for comparing phenotypic and genotypic data can provide useful metrics of divergence among populations and identify those that merit consideration for elevation to full species status. Using a conceptual approach that integrates genetic and phenotypic data, we compared populations among 48 species, estimating genetic divergence (p-distance) using the mtDNA marker ND2 and comparing plumage and morphometrics of museum study skins. Using conservative speciation thresholds, pairwise comparisons of genetic and phenotypic divergence suggested possible species-level divergences in more than half of the species studied (25 out of 48). In speciation process space, divergence routes were heterogeneous among taxa. Nearly all populations that surpassed high genotypic divergence thresholds were Passeriformes, and non-Passeriformes populations surpassed high phenotypic divergence thresholds more commonly than expected by chance. Overall, there was an apparent logarithmic increase in phenotypic divergence with respect to genetic divergence, suggesting the possibility that divergence among these lineages may initially be driven by divergent selection in this allopatric system. Also, genetic endemism was high among sampled islands. Higher taxonomy affected divergence in genotype and phenotype. Although broader lineage, genetic, phenotypic, and numeric sampling is needed to further explore heterogeneity among divergence processes and to accurately assess species-level diversity in these taxa, our results support the need for substantial taxonomic revisions among Philippine birds. The conservation implications are profound.
authors.affiliation: University of Alaska Museum and Department of Biology and Wildlife, Fairbanks, Alaska, United States of America.
authors.forename: Kyle K
authors.initials: KK
authors.lastname: Campbell
authors.affiliation: University of Alaska Museum and Department of Biology and Wildlife, Fairbanks, Alaska, United States of America.
authors.forename: Thomas
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Braile
authors.affiliation: University of Alaska Museum and Department of Biology and Wildlife, Fairbanks, Alaska, United States of America.
authors.forename: Kevin
authors.identifier: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8985-8104
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Winker
mesh_terms: D000704:Analysis of Variance; D000818:Animals; D016009:Chi-Square Distribution; D049810:Genetic Speciation; D014644:Genetic Variation; D005838:Genotype; D016018:Least-Squares Analysis; D017711:Nonlinear Dynamics; D046109:Passeriformes / Q000235:genetics*; D010641:Phenotype; D010679:Philippines; D010802:Phylogeny; D013045:Species Specificity