title: Ecological distributions, phenological isolation, and genetic structure in sympatric and parapatric populations of the Larrea tridentata polyploid complex.
abstract: Polyploidy is widely recognized as a mechanism of diversification. Contributions of polyploidy to specific pre- and postzygotic barriers-and classifications of polyploid speciation as "ecological" vs. "non-ecological"-are more contentious. Evaluation of these issues requires comprehensive studies that test ecological characteristics of cytotypes as well as the coincidence of genetic structure with cytotype distributions.
  
  
  
  We investigated a classical example of autopolyploid speciation, Larrea tridentata, at multiple areas of cytotype co-occurrence. Habitat and phenological differences were compared between diploid, tetraploid, and hexaploid populations on the basis of edaphic, community composition, and flowering time surveys. Frequency of hybridization between diploids and tetraploids was investigated using a diploid-specific chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) marker; genetic structure for all cytotypes was assessed using amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs).
  
  
  
  Across contact zones, we found cytotypes in habitats distinguished by soil and vegetation. We observed modest differences in timing and production of flowers, indicating a degree of assortative mating that was asymmetric between cytotypes. Nonetheless, cpDNA analyses in diploid-tetraploid contact zones suggested that ∼5% of tetraploid plants had hybrid origins involving unilateral sexual polyploidization. Genetic structure of AFLPs largely coincided with cytotype distributions in diploid-tetraploid contact zones. In contrast, there was little structure in areas of contact between tetraploids and hexaploids, suggesting intercytotype gene flow or recurrent hexaploid formation.
  
  
  
  Diploid, tetraploid, and hexaploid cytotypes of L. tridentata are segregated by environmental distributions and flowering phenology in contact zones, with diploid and tetraploid populations having corresponding differences in genetic structure.
authors.affiliation: University of Nebraska-Lincoln, School of Biological Sciences, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588 USA rob.laport@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Robert G
authors.initials: RG
authors.lastname: Laport
authors.affiliation: University of Rochester, Department of Biology, River Campus, Rochester, New York 14627 USA.
authors.forename: Robert L
authors.initials: RL
authors.lastname: Minckley
authors.affiliation: Black Hills State University, School of Natural Sciences, Spearfish, South Dakota 57799 USA.
authors.forename: Justin
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Ramsey
mesh_terms: D004171:Diploidy; D004463:Ecology; D017753:Ecosystem; D035264:Flowers / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000235:genetics; D051456:Gene Flow; D040342:Genetic Structures; D005843:Geography; D006824:Hybridization, Genetic; D032442:Larrea / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000235:genetics*; D010641:Phenotype; D011123:Polyploidy; D061350:Sympatry; D057891:Tetraploidy
keywords: AFLPs; Larrea tridentata; Zygophyllaceae; chromosome evolution; cryptic species; ecological speciation; flowering phenology