title: Transgender women, hormonal therapy and HIV treatment: a comprehensive review of the literature and recommendations for best practices.
abstract: Studies have shown that transgender women (TGW) are disproportionately affected by HIV, with an estimated HIV prevalence of 19.1% among TGW worldwide. After receiving a diagnosis, HIV-positive TGW have challenges accessing effective HIV treatment, as demonstrated by lower rates of virologic suppression and higher HIV-related mortality. These adverse HIV outcomes have been attributed to the multiple sociocultural and structural barriers that negatively affect their engagement within the HIV care continuum. Guidelines for feminizing hormonal therapy among TGW recommend combinations of oestrogens and androgen blockers. Pharmacokinetic studies have shown that certain antiretroviral therapy (ART) agents, such as protease inhibitors (PIs), non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) and cobicistat, interact with ethinyl estradiol, the key oestrogen component of oral contraceptives (OCPs). The goal of this article is to provide an overview of hormonal regimens used by TGW, to summarize the known drug-drug interactions (DDIs) between feminizing hormonal regimens and ART, and to provide clinical care recommendations.
  
  
  
  The authors identified English language articles examining DDIs between oestrogen therapy, androgen blockers and ART published between 1995 and 2015 using PubMed, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature and EBSCOhost.
  
  
  
  Published articles predominantly addressed interactions between ethinyl estradiol and NNRTIs and PIs. No studies examined interactions between ART and the types and doses of oestrogens found in feminizing regimens. DDIs that may have the potential to result in loss of virologic suppression included ethinyl estradiol and amprenavir, unboosted fosamprenavir and stavudine. No clinically significant DDIs were noted with other anti-retroviral agents or androgen blockers.
  
  
  
  There are insufficient data to address DDIs between ART and feminizing hormone regimens used by TGW. There is an urgent need for further research in this area, specifically pharmacokinetic studies to study the direction and degree of interactions between oral, injectable and transdermal estradiol and ART. Clinicians need to be vigilant about possible interactions and monitor hormone levels if concerns arise. More research is also needed on the provision of hormone therapy and gender-affirming care on the long-term health outcomes of HIV-positive TGW.
authors.affiliation: Callen-Lorde Community Health Center New York, NY, USA; aradix@callen-lorde.org.
authors.forename: Asa
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Radix
authors.affiliation: Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA.
authors.forename: Jae
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Sevelius
authors.affiliation: Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA.
authors.forename: Madeline B
authors.initials: MB
authors.lastname: Deutsch
mesh_terms: D019380:Anti-HIV Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D004347:Drug Interactions; D004967:Estrogens / Q000008:administration & dosage; D004997:Ethinyl Estradiol / Q000008:administration & dosage; D005260:Female; D015658:HIV Infections / Q000188:drug therapy*; D015497:HIV-1 / Q000187:drug effects; D006728:Hormones / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D006801:Humans; D063106:Transgender Persons; D008297:Male
chemical_list: D019380:Anti-HIV Agents; D004967:Estrogens; D006728:Hormones; D004997:Ethinyl Estradiol
keywords: HIV; antiretroviral therapy; hormones; transgender