title: The global mechanical properties and multi-scale failure mechanics of heterogeneous human stratum corneum.
abstract: The outermost layer of skin, or stratum corneum, regulates water loss and protects underlying living tissue from environmental pathogens and insults. With cracking, chapping or the formation of exudative lesions, this functionality is lost. While stratum corneum exhibits well defined global mechanical properties, macroscopic mechanical testing techniques used to measure them ignore the structural heterogeneity of the tissue and cannot provide any mechanistic insight into tissue fracture. As such, a mechanistic understanding of failure in this soft tissue is lacking. This insight is critical to predicting fracture risk associated with age or disease. In this study, we first quantify previously unreported global mechanical properties of isolated stratum corneum including the Poisson's ratio and mechanical toughness. African American breast stratum corneum is used for all assessments. We show these parameters are highly dependent on the ambient humidity to which samples are equilibrated. A multi-scale investigation assessing the influence of structural heterogeneities on the microscale nucleation and propagation of cracks is then performed. At the mesoscale, spatially resolved equivalent strain fields within uniaxially stretched stratum corneum samples exhibit a striking heterogeneity, with localized peaks correlating closely with crack nucleation sites. Subsequent crack propagation pathways follow inherent topographical features in the tissue and lengthen with increased tissue hydration. At the microscale, intact corneocytes and polygonal shaped voids at crack interfaces highlight that cracks propagate in superficial cell layers primarily along intercellular junctions. Cellular fracture does occur however, but is uncommon.
  
  
  
  Human stratum corneum protects the body against harmful environmental pathogens and insults. Upon mechanical failure, this barrier function is lost. Previous studies characterizing the mechanics of stratum corneum have used macroscopic testing equipment designed for homogenous materials. Such measurements ignore the tissue's rich topography and heterogeneous structure, and cannot describe the underlying mechanistic process of tissue failure. For the first time, we establish a mechanistic insight into the failure mechanics of soft heterogeneous tissues by investigating how cracks nucleate and propagate in stratum corneum. We further quantify previously unreported values of the tissue's Poisson's ratio and toughness, and their dramatic variation with ambient humidity. To date, skin models examining drug delivery, wound healing, and ageing continue to estimate these parameters.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biomedical Engineering, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY, USA.
authors.forename: X
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Liu
authors.affiliation: Department of Biomedical Engineering, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY, USA.
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Cleary
authors.affiliation: Department of Biomedical Engineering, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY, USA. Electronic address: ggerman@binghamton.edu.
authors.forename: G K
authors.initials: GK
authors.lastname: German
mesh_terms: D001696:Biomechanical Phenomena; D055119:Elastic Modulus; D004817:Epidermis / Q000502:physiology*; D006801:Humans; D006813:Humidity; D007091:Image Processing, Computer-Assisted; D013314:Stress, Mechanical; D023822:Tissue Engineering
keywords: Fracture; Heterogeneous; Multi-scale; Poisson’s ratio; Stratum corneum; Toughness