title: In vitro selection of Plasmodium falciparum Pfcrt and Pfmdr1 variants by artemisinin.
abstract: Anti-malarial drugs are the major focus in the prevention and treatment of malaria. Artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) is the WHO recommended first-line treatment for Plasmodium falciparum malaria across the endemic world. Also ACT is increasingly relied upon in treating Plasmodium vivax malaria where chloroquine is failing. The emergence of artemisinin drug-resistant parasites is a serious threat faced by global malaria control programmes. Therefore, the success of treatment and intervention strategies is highly pegged on understanding the genetic basis of resistance.
  
  
  
  Here, resistance in P. falciparum was generated in vitro for artemisinin to produce levels above clinically relevant concentrations in vivo, and the molecular haplotypes investigated. Genomic DNA was extracted using the QIAamp mini DNA kit. DNA sequences of Pfk13, Pfcrt and Pfmdr1 genes were amplified by PCR and the amplicons were successfully sequenced. Single nucleotide polymorphisms were traced by standard bidirectional sequencing and reading the transcripts against wild-type sequences in Codon code Aligner Version 5.1 and NCBI blast.
  
  
  
  Exposure of parasite strains D6 and W2 to artemisinin resulted in a decrease in parasite susceptibility to artemisinin (W2 and D6) and lumefantrine (D6 only). The parasites exhibited elevated IC50s to multiple artemisinins, with >twofold resistance to artemisinin; however, the resistance index obtained with standard methods was noticeably less than expected for parasite lines recovered from 50 µg/ml 48 h drug pressure. The change in parasite susceptibility was associated with Pfmdr-185K mutation, a mutation never reported before. The Pfcrt-CVMNK genotype (Pfcrt codons 72-76) was retained and notably, the study did not detect any polymorphisms reported to reduce P. falciparum susceptibility in vivo in the coding sequences of the Pfk13 gene.
  
  
  
  This data demonstrate that P. falciparum has the capacity to develop resistance to artemisinin derivatives in vitro and that this phenotype is achieved by mutations in Pfmdr1, the genetic changes that are also underpinning lumefantrine resistance. This finding is of practical importance, because artemisinin drugs in Kenya are used in combination with lumefantrine for the treatment of malaria.
  
  
  
  Artemisinin resistance phenotype as has been shown in this work, is a decrease in parasites susceptibility to artemisinin derivatives together with the parasite's ability to recover from drug-induced dormancy after exposure to drug dosage above the in vivo clinical concentrations. The study surmises that Pfmdr1 may play a role in the anti-malarial activity of artemisinin.
authors.affiliation: Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT), P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi, Kenya.
authors.forename: Muturi J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Njokah
authors.affiliation: Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT), P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi, Kenya.
authors.forename: Joseph N
authors.initials: JN
authors.lastname: Kang'ethe
authors.affiliation: Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT), P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi, Kenya.
authors.forename: Johnson
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Kinyua
authors.affiliation: Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT), P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi, Kenya.
authors.forename: Daniel
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Kariuki
authors.affiliation: Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), Centre for Biotechnology Research and Development (CBRD), P.O. Box 54840-00200, Nairobi, Kenya. kimanift@yahoo.com.
authors.forename: Francis T
authors.initials: FT
authors.lastname: Kimani
mesh_terms: D000962:Antimalarials / Q000494:pharmacology*; D037621:Artemisinins / Q000494:pharmacology*; D016054:DNA, Protozoan / Q000737:chemistry / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification; D006239:Haplotypes; D006801:Humans; D007630:Kenya; D026901:Membrane Transport Proteins / Q000235:genetics*; D027425:ATP-Binding Cassette, Sub-Family C Proteins / Q000235:genetics*; D050505:Mutant Proteins / Q000235:genetics*; D010963:Plasmodium falciparum / Q000187:drug effects*; D016133:Polymerase Chain Reaction; D020641:Polymorphism, Single Nucleotide; D015800:Protozoan Proteins / Q000235:genetics*; D012641:Selection, Genetic; D017422:Sequence Analysis, DNA
chemical_list: D000962:Antimalarials; D037621:Artemisinins; D016054:DNA, Protozoan; D026901:Membrane Transport Proteins; D027425:ATP-Binding Cassette, Sub-Family C Proteins; D050505:Mutant Proteins; D015800:Protozoan Proteins; C513498:Mdr1 protein, Plasmodium falciparum; C416369:PfCRT protein, Plasmodium falciparum; C031327:artemisinin
keywords: Artemisinin; Drug resistance; Malaria