title: Emerging Executive Functioning and Motor Development in Infants at High and Low Risk for Autism Spectrum Disorder.
abstract: Existing evidence suggests executive functioning (EF) deficits may be present in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) by 3 years of age. It is less clear when, prior to 3 years, EF deficits may emerge and how EF unfold over time. The contribution of motor skill difficulties to poorer EF in children with ASD has not been systematically studied. We investigated the developmental trajectory of EF in infants at high and low familial risk for ASD (HR and LR) and the potential associations between motor skills, diagnostic group, and EF performance. Participants included 186 HR and 76 LR infants. EF (A-not-B), motor skills (Fine and Gross Motor), and cognitive ability were directly assessed at 12 months and 24 months of age. Participants were directly evaluated for ASD at 24 months using DSM-IV-TR criteria and categorized as HR-ASD, HR-Negative, and LR-Negative. HR-ASD and HR-Negative siblings demonstrated less improvement in EF over time compared to the LR-Negative group. Motor skills were associated with group and EF performance at 12 months. No group differences were found at 12 months, but at 24 months, the HR-ASD and HR-Negative groups performed worse than the LR-Negative group overall after controlling for visual reception and maternal education. On reversal trials, the HR-ASD group performed worse than the LR-Negative group. Motor skills were associated with group and EF performance on reversal trials at 24 months. Findings suggest that HR siblings demonstrate altered EF development and that motor skills may play an important role in this process.
authors.affiliation: Speech and Hearing Sciences, University of WashingtonSeattle, WA, USA; UW Autism Center, Center on Human Development and Disability, University of WashingtonSeattle, WA, USA.
authors.forename: Tanya
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: St John
authors.affiliation: Speech and Hearing Sciences, University of WashingtonSeattle, WA, USA; UW Autism Center, Center on Human Development and Disability, University of WashingtonSeattle, WA, USA.
authors.forename: Annette M
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Estes
authors.affiliation: UW Autism Center, Center on Human Development and Disability, University of WashingtonSeattle, WA, USA; Department of Radiology, University of WashingtonSeattle, WA, USA.
authors.forename: Stephen R
authors.initials: SR
authors.lastname: Dager
authors.affiliation: McConnell Brain Imaging Centre, Montreal Neurological Institute Montreal, CA, USA.
authors.forename: Penelope
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Kostopoulos
authors.affiliation: Department of Educational Psychology, University of Minnesota Minneapolis, MN, USA.
authors.forename: Jason J
authors.initials: JJ
authors.lastname: Wolff
authors.affiliation: Department of Pediatrics, The Center for Autism Research, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, PA, USA.
authors.forename: Juhi
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Pandey
authors.affiliation: Institute of Child Development, University of Minnesota Minneapolis, MN, USA.
authors.forename: Jed T
authors.initials: JT
authors.lastname: Elison
authors.affiliation: Department of Pediatrics, The Center for Autism Research, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, PA, USA.
authors.forename: Sarah J
authors.initials: SJ
authors.lastname: Paterson
authors.affiliation: Department of Pediatrics, The Center for Autism Research, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, PA, USA.
authors.forename: Robert T
authors.initials: RT
authors.lastname: Schultz
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine Saint Louis, MO, USA.
authors.forename: Kelly
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Botteron
authors.affiliation: Carolina Institute for Developmental DisabilitiesChapel Hill, NC, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of North CarolinaChapel Hill, NC.
authors.forename: Heather
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Hazlett
authors.affiliation: Carolina Institute for Developmental DisabilitiesChapel Hill, NC, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of North CarolinaChapel Hill, NC.
authors.forename: Joseph
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Piven
keywords: autism; executive functioning; high-risk; inhibition; motor skills; working memory