title: Neurodegenerative and neurological disorders by small inhaled particles.
abstract: The world's population is steadily ageing and as a result, health conditions related to ageing, such as dementia, have become a major public health concern. In 2001, it was estimated that there were almost 5 million Europeans suffering from Alzheimer's disease (AD) and this figure has been projected to almost double by 2040. About 40% of people over 85 suffer from AD, and another 10% from Parkinson's disease (PD). The majority of AD and PD cases are of sporadic origin and environmental factors play an important role in the aetiology. Epidemiological research identified airborne particulate matter (PM) as one of the environmental factors potentially involved in AD and PD pathogenesis. Also, cumulating evidence demonstrates that the smallest sizes of the inhalable fraction of ambient particulate matter, also referred to as ultrafine particulate matter or nano-sized particles, are capable of inducing effects beyond the respiratory system. Translocation of very small particles via the olfactory epithelium in the nose or via uptake into the circulation has been demonstrated through experimental rodent studies with engineered nanoparticles. Outdoor air pollution has been linked to several health effects including oxidative stress and neuroinflammation that may ultimately result in neurodegeneration and cognitive impairment. This review aims to evaluate the relationship between exposure to inhaled ambient particles and neurodegeneration.
authors.affiliation: IUF-Leibniz Research Institute for Environmental Medicine, Düsseldorf, Germany; National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands, The Netherlands; AIR pollutants and Brain Aging research Group. Electronic address: Harm.Heusinkveld@iuf-duesseldorf.de.
authors.forename: Harm J
authors.initials: HJ
authors.lastname: Heusinkveld
authors.affiliation: IUF-Leibniz Research Institute for Environmental Medicine, Düsseldorf, Germany; AIR pollutants and Brain Aging research Group.
authors.forename: Tina
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Wahle
authors.affiliation: College of Pharmacy, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA, USA.
authors.forename: Arezoo
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Campbell
authors.affiliation: Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Remco H S
authors.initials: RHS
authors.lastname: Westerink
authors.affiliation: Institute of Occupational Medicine, Edinburgh, UK.
authors.forename: Lang
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Tran
authors.affiliation: Heriot-Watt University, School of Life Sciences, Edinburgh, UK.
authors.forename: Helinor
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Johnston
authors.affiliation: Heriot-Watt University, School of Life Sciences, Edinburgh, UK.
authors.forename: Vicki
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Stone
authors.affiliation: National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands, The Netherlands; Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands; AIR pollutants and Brain Aging research Group.
authors.forename: Flemming R
authors.initials: FR
authors.lastname: Cassee
authors.affiliation: IUF-Leibniz Research Institute for Environmental Medicine, Düsseldorf, Germany; AIR pollutants and Brain Aging research Group.
authors.forename: Roel P F
authors.initials: RPF
authors.lastname: Schins
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D006801:Humans; D019570:Inhalation Exposure / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D009422:Nervous System Diseases / Q000139:chemically induced* / Q000453:epidemiology; D019636:Neurodegenerative Diseases / Q000139:chemically induced* / Q000453:epidemiology; D052638:Particulate Matter / Q000009:adverse effects*
chemical_list: D052638:Particulate Matter
keywords: Nanomaterials; Neurodegeneration; Neuroinflammation; Oxidative stress; Ultrafine particles