title: Policies for replacing long-term indwelling urinary catheters in adults.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Long-term indwelling catheters are used commonly in people with lower urinary tract problems in home, hospital and specialised health-care settings. There are many potential complications and adverse effects associated with long-term catheter use. The effect of health-care policies related to the replacement of long-term urinary catheters on patient outcomes is unclear.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To determine the effectiveness of different policies for replacing long-term indwelling urinary catheters in adults.
  
  
  METHODS
  We searched the Cochrane Incontinence Specialised Trials Register, which contains trials identified from the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE, MEDLINE In-Process, MEDLINE Epub Ahead of Print, CINAHL, ClinicalTrials.gov, WHO ICTRP and handsearching of journals and conference proceedings (searched 19 May 2016), and the reference lists of relevant articles.
  
  
  METHODS
  All randomised controlled trials investigating policies for replacing long-term indwelling urinary catheters in adults were included.
  
  
  METHODS
  At least two review authors independently performed data extraction and assessed risk of bias of all the included trials. Quality of evidence was assessed by adopting the GRADE approach. Any discrepancies were resolved by discussion between the review authors or an independent arbitrator. We contacted the authors of included trials to seek clarification where required.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Three trials met the inclusion criteria, with a total of 107 participants in three different health-care settings: A USA veterans administration nursing home; a geriatric centre in Israel; and a community nursing service in Hong Kong. Data were available for three of the pre-stated comparisons. Priefer and colleagues evaluated different time intervals between catheter replacement (n = 17); Firestein and colleagues evaluated the use of antibiotic prophylaxis at the time of replacement (n = 70); and Cheung and colleagues compared two different types of cleaning solutions (n = 20).All the included trials were small and under-powered. The reporting of the trials was inadequate and as a result, risk of bias assessment was judged to be unclear for the majority of the domains in two out of the three trials. There was insufficient evidence to indicate that (i) there was a lower incidence of symptomatic UTI in people whose catheter was changed both monthly and when clinically indicated (risk ratio (RR) 0.35, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.13 to 0.95; very low quality evidence) compared to only when clinically indicated, (ii) there was not enough evidence to assess the effect of antibiotic prophylaxis on reducing: positive urine cultures at 7 days (RR 0.91, 95% CI 0.79 to 1.04); infection (RR 1.41, 95% CI 0.55 to 3.65); or death (RR 2.12, 95% CI 0.20 to 22.30; very low quality evidence), (iii) there was no statistically significant difference in the incidence of asymptomatic bacteruria at 7 days (RR 0.80, 95% CI 0.42 to 1.52) between people receiving water or chlorhexidine solution for periurethral cleansing at the time of catheter replacement. However, none of the 16 participants developed a symptomatic catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI) at day 14.The following outcomes were considered critical for decision-making and were also selected for the 'Summary of findings' table: (i) participant satisfaction, (ii) condition-specific quality of life, (iii) urinary tract trauma, and (iv) formal economic analysis. However, none of the trials reported these outcomes.None of the trials compared the following comparisons: (i) replacing catheter versus other policy e.g. washouts, (ii) replacing in the home environment versus clinical environment, (iii) clean versus aseptic technique for replacing catheter, (iv) lubricant A versus lubricant B or no lubricant, and (v) catheter user versus carer versus health professional performing the catheter replacement procedure.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  There is currently insufficient evidence to assess the value of different policies for replacing long-term urinary catheters on patient outcomes. In particular, there are a number of policies for which there are currently no trial data; and a number of important outcomes which have not been assessed, including patient satisfaction, quality of life, urinary tract trauma, and economic outcomes. There is an immediate need for rigorous, adequately powered randomised controlled trials which assess important clinical outcomes and abide by the principles and recommendations of the CONSORT statement.
authors.affiliation: Academic Urology Unit, University of Aberdeen, Health Sciences Building, Foresterhill, Aberdeen, UK, AB25 2ZD.
authors.forename: Fergus P M
authors.initials: FP
authors.lastname: Cooper
authors.forename: Cameron Edwin
authors.initials: CE
authors.lastname: Alexander
authors.forename: Sanjay
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Sinha
authors.forename: Muhammad Imran
authors.initials: MI
authors.lastname: Omar
mesh_terms: D000367:Age Factors; D000368:Aged; D000891:Anti-Infective Agents, Local; D019072:Antibiotic Prophylaxis; D002408:Catheters, Indwelling; D002710:Chlorhexidine; D003657:Decision Making; D020878:Device Removal / Q000379:methods / Q000592:standards*; D005260:Female; D006291:Health Policy; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D019999:Pharmaceutical Solutions; D016032:Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic; D012737:Sex Factors; D013997:Time Factors; D014546:Urinary Catheterization / Q000379:methods / Q000592:standards*; D062885:Urinary Catheters; D014552:Urinary Tract Infections / Q000517:prevention & control*
chemical_list: D000891:Anti-Infective Agents, Local; D019999:Pharmaceutical Solutions; D002710:Chlorhexidine