title: Prevalence of pathogenic free-living amoeba and other protozoa in natural and communal piped tap water from Queen Elizabeth protected area, Uganda.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Pathogenic water dwelling protozoa such as Acanthamoeba spp., Hartmannella spp., Naegleria spp., Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. are often responsible for devastating illnesses especially in children and immunocompromised individuals, yet their presence and prevalence in certain environment in sub-Saharan Africa is still unknown to most researchers, public health officials and medical practitioners. The objective of this study was to establish the presence and prevalence of pathogenic free-living amoeba (FLA), Cryptosporidium and Giardia in Queen Elizabeth Protected Area (QEPA).
  
  
  METHODS
  Samples were collected from communal taps and natural water sites in QEPA. Physical water parameters were measured in situ. The samples were processed to detect the presence of FLA trophozoites by xenic cultivation, Cryptosporidium oocysts by Ziehl-Neelsen stain and Giardia cysts by Zinc Sulphate floatation technique. Parasites were observed microscopically, identified, counted and recorded. For FLA, genomic DNA was extracted for amplification and sequencing.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Both natural and tap water sources were contaminated with FLA, Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. All protozoan parasites were more abundant in the colder rainy season except for Harmannella spp. and Naegleria spp. which occurred more in the warmer months. The prevalence of all parasites was higher in tap water than in natural water samples. There was a strong negative correlation between the presence of Acanthamoeba spp., Hartmannella spp., Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. with Dissolved Oxygen (DO) (P < 0.05). The presence of Cryptosporidium spp. showed a significant positive correlation (P < 0.05) with conductivity, pH and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS); whereas the presence of Giardia spp. had only a strong positive correlation with TDS. Molecular genotyping of FLA produced 7 Acanthamoeba, 5 Echinamoeba, 2 Hartmannella, 1 Bodomorpha, 1 Nuclearia and 1 Cercomonas partial sequences.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  All water collection sites were found to be contaminated with pathogenic protozoa that could possibly be the cause of a number of silent morbidities and mortalities among rural households in QEPA. This implies that water used by communities in QEPA is of poor quality and predisposes them to a variety of protozoan infections including the FLA whose public health importance was never reported, thus necessitating adoption of proper water safety measures.
authors.affiliation: Department of Wildlife and Aquatic Animal Resources (WAAR), School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources (SVAR), College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O.Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda. csente37@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Celsus
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Sente
authors.affiliation: Department of Biomolecular Resources and Biolab Sciences, School of Bio-security, Biotechnical and Laboratory Sciences (SBLS), College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O.Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
authors.forename: Joseph
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Erume
authors.affiliation: Department of Wildlife and Aquatic Animal Resources (WAAR), School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources (SVAR), College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O.Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
authors.forename: Irene
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Naigaga
authors.affiliation: Department of Biomolecular Resources and Biolab Sciences, School of Bio-security, Biotechnical and Laboratory Sciences (SBLS), College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O.Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.|Department of Biochemistry and Sports Science (BSS), College of Natural Sciences (CONAS), Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
authors.forename: Julius
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Mulindwa
authors.affiliation: Department of Biomolecular Resources and Biolab Sciences, School of Bio-security, Biotechnical and Laboratory Sciences (SBLS), College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O.Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
authors.forename: Sylvester
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Ochwo
authors.affiliation: Department of Biomolecular Resources and Biolab Sciences, School of Bio-security, Biotechnical and Laboratory Sciences (SBLS), College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O.Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
authors.forename: Phillip Kimuda
authors.initials: PK
authors.lastname: Magambo
authors.affiliation: Medical Research Council (MRC)/Uganda Virus Research Institute (UVRI), Research Unit on AIDS, P.O.Box 49, Entebbe, Uganda.
authors.forename: Benigna Gabriela
authors.initials: BG
authors.lastname: Namara
authors.affiliation: Department of Biomolecular Resources and Biolab Sciences, School of Bio-security, Biotechnical and Laboratory Sciences (SBLS), College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O.Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
authors.forename: Charles Drago
authors.initials: CD
authors.lastname: Kato
authors.affiliation: Department of Biomolecular Resources and Biolab Sciences, School of Bio-security, Biotechnical and Laboratory Sciences (SBLS), College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O.Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.|Department of Molecular Biology, Vrije Universiteit, Pleinlaan 21050, Brussels, Belgium.
authors.forename: George
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Sebyatika
authors.affiliation: Department of Biomolecular Resources and Biolab Sciences, School of Bio-security, Biotechnical and Laboratory Sciences (SBLS), College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O.Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.|Department of Molecular Biology, Vrije Universiteit, Pleinlaan 21050, Brussels, Belgium.
authors.forename: Kevin
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Muwonge
authors.affiliation: Department of Wildlife and Aquatic Animal Resources (WAAR), School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources (SVAR), College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, P.O.Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Ocaido
mesh_terms: D000562:Amebiasis / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000469:parasitology; D016841:Amoebida / Q000145:classification / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D003457:Cryptosporidiosis / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000469:parasitology; D003458:Cryptosporidium / Q000145:classification / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D016054:DNA, Protozoan / Q000235:genetics; D060766:Drinking Water / Q000469:parasitology*; D005872:Giardia / Q000145:classification / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D005873:Giardiasis / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000469:parasitology; D006801:Humans; D015995:Prevalence; D012337:RNA, Ribosomal, 18S / Q000235:genetics; D017422:Sequence Analysis, DNA; D014454:Uganda / Q000453:epidemiology
chemical_list: D016054:DNA, Protozoan; D060766:Drinking Water; D012337:RNA, Ribosomal, 18S
keywords: Free-living; Prevalence; Protozoa; Queen Elizabeth; Uganda; Water