title: Exploring the Motivations for Punishment: Framing and Country-Level Effects.
abstract: Identifying the motives underpinning punishment is crucial for understanding its evolved function. In principle, punishment of distributional inequality could be motivated by the desire to reciprocate losses ('revenge') or by the desire to reduce payoff asymmetries between the punisher and the target ('inequality aversion'). By separating these two possible motivations, recent work suggests that punishment is more likely to be motivated by disadvantageous inequality aversion than by a desire for revenge. Nevertheless, these findings have not consistently replicated across different studies. Here, we suggest that considering country of origin-previously overlooked as a possible source of variation in responses-is important for understanding when and why individuals punish one another. We conducted a two-player stealing game with punishment, using data from 2,400 subjects recruited from the USA and India. US-based subjects punished in response to losses and disadvantageous inequality, but seldom invested in antisocial punishment (defined here as punishment of non-stealing partners). India-based subjects, on the other hand, punished at higher levels than US-based subjects and, so long as they did not experience disadvantageous inequality, punished stealing and non-stealing partners indiscriminately. Nevertheless, as in the USA, when stealing resulted in disadvantageous inequality, India-based subjects punished stealing partners more than non-stealing partners. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that variation in punitive behavior varies across societies, and support the idea that punishment might sometimes function to improve relative status, rather than to enforce cooperation.
authors.affiliation: Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, Gower Street, London, United Kingdom, WC1E 6BT.|CoMPLEX, University College London, Gower Street, London, United Kingdom, WC1E 6BT.
authors.forename: Jonathan E
authors.initials: JE
authors.lastname: Bone
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Boston, MA, United States of America, 02467.
authors.forename: Katherine
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: McAuliffe
authors.affiliation: Department of Experimental Psychology, University College London, 26 Bedford Way, London, United Kingdom, WC1H 0AP.
authors.forename: Nichola J
authors.initials: NJ
authors.lastname: Raihani
mesh_terms: D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007194:India; D008297:Male; D009042:Motivation; D011678:Punishment / Q000523:psychology*; D014481:United States