title: The association between graduated driver licensing laws and travel behaviors among adolescents: an analysis of US National Household Travel Surveys.
abstract: Young novice drivers have crash rates higher than any other age group. To address this problem, graduated driver licensing (GDL) laws have been implemented in the United States to require an extended learner permit phase, and create night time driving or passenger restrictions for adolescent drivers. GDL allows adolescents to gain experience driving under low-risk conditions with the aim of reducing crashes. The restricted driving might increase riding with parents or on buses, which might be safer, or walking or biking, which might be more dangerous. We examined whether GDL increases non-driver travels, and whether it reduces total travels combining drivers and non-drivers.
  
  
  
  We used data from the US National Household Travel Survey for the years 1995-1996, 2001-2002, and 2008-2009 to estimate the adjusted ratio for the number of trips and trip kilometers made by persons exposed to a GDL law, compared with those not exposed.
  
  
  
  Adolescents aged 16 years had fewer trips and kilometers as drivers when exposed to a GDL law: ratio 0.84 (95 % confidence interval (CI) 0.71, 1.00) for trips; 0.79 (0.63, 0.98) for kilometers. For adolescents aged 17 years, the trip ratio was 0.94 (0.83, 1.07) and the kilometers ratio 0.80 (0.63, 1.03). There was little association between GDL laws and trips or kilometers traveled by other methods: ratio 1.03 for trips and 1.00 for kilometers for age 16 years, 0.94 for trips and 1.07 for kilometers for age 17.
  
  
  
  If these associations are causal, GDL laws reduced driving kilometers by about 20 % for 16 and 17 year olds, and reduced the number of driving trips by 16 % among 16 year olds. GDL laws showed little relationship with trips by other methods.
authors.affiliation: Center for Injury Research and Policy, The Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, 700 Children's Drive, Columbus, OH, 43205, USA. Motao.Zhu@NationwideChildrens.org.|Injury Control Research Center, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA. Motao.Zhu@NationwideChildrens.org.
authors.forename: Motao
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Zhu
authors.affiliation: School of Public Health and Harborview injury Prevention & Research Center, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
authors.forename: Peter
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Cummings
authors.affiliation: Injury Control Research Center, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA.|Center for Biostatistics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.
authors.forename: Songzhu
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Zhao
authors.affiliation: Safe Transportation Research & Education Center, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA.
authors.forename: Thomas
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Rice
mesh_terms: D000063:Accidents, Traffic / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D000293:Adolescent; D000294:Adolescent Behavior; D001334:Automobile Driving / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007858:Learning; D008004:Licensure / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence*; D008297:Male; D012306:Risk; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D014195:Travel / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D014481:United States
keywords: Adolescent; Legislation; Policy; Transportation