title: Implicit motor sequence learning in schizophrenia and in old age: reduced performance only in the third session.
abstract: Although there still is conflicting evidence whether schizophrenia is a neurodegenerative disease, cognitive changes in schizophrenia resemble those observed during normal aging. In contrast to extensively demonstrated deficits in explicit learning, it remains unclear whether implicit sequence learning is impaired in schizophrenia and normal aging. Implicit sequence learning was investigated using a computerized drawing task, the 'implicit pattern learning task (IPLT)' in 30 stable patients with schizophrenia, 30 age-matched controls and 30 elderly subjects on two consecutive days and after 1 week (sessions 1, 2 and 3). Fixed sequence trials were intermixed with random trials, and sequence learning was assessed by subtraction of the response time in fixed sequence trials from random trials. Separate analyses of response times and movement accuracy (i.e., directional errors) were performed. Explicit sequence knowledge was assessed using three different awareness tasks. All groups learned equally during sessions 1 and 2. In session 3, control subjects showed significantly larger learning scores than patients with schizophrenia (p = .012) and elderly subjects (p = .021). This group difference is mainly expressed in movement time and directional errors. Patients with schizophrenia demonstrated less subjective sequence awareness, and both patients with schizophrenia and elderly subjects had less explicit sequence recall. Explicit recall was positively correlated with task performance in all groups. After a short 24 h interval, all subjects showed similar improvements in implicit sequence learning. However, no benefit of prior task exposure 1 week later was observed in patients with schizophrenia and elderly subjects compared to controls. As patients with schizophrenia and elderly both display less explicit sequence recall, the control group superiority after 1 week could be explained by an explicit learning component. The few patients with schizophrenia and elderly subjects who had some sequence recall could possibly utilize this explicit knowledge to improve their task performance but did this by distinct mechanisms.
authors: Collaborative Antwerp Psychiatric Research Institute, University of Antwerp, Campus Drie Eiken - gebouw R - D.R.328, Universiteitsplein 1 (R Building, 3th Floor), 2610, Antwerp, Belgium. claudia.cornelis@uantwerpen.be.|University Psychiatric Center St. Norbertus, Stationsstraat 22, 2570, Duffel, Belgium. claudia.cornelis@uantwerpen.be.
authors: Claudia
authors: 0000-0003-0483-6342
authors: C
authors: Cornelis
authors: Collaborative Antwerp Psychiatric Research Institute, University of Antwerp, Campus Drie Eiken - gebouw R - D.R.328, Universiteitsplein 1 (R Building, 3th Floor), 2610, Antwerp, Belgium.|University Psychiatric Center St. Norbertus, Stationsstraat 22, 2570, Duffel, Belgium.
authors: Livia J
authors: LJ
authors: De Picker
authors: Collaborative Antwerp Psychiatric Research Institute, University of Antwerp, Campus Drie Eiken - gebouw R - D.R.328, Universiteitsplein 1 (R Building, 3th Floor), 2610, Antwerp, Belgium.|Janssen Research and Development, A Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica N.V., Turnhoutseweg 30, 2340, Beerse, Belgium.
authors: Peter
authors: P
authors: De Boer
authors: Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
authors: Glenn
authors: G
authors: Dumont
authors: Collaborative Antwerp Psychiatric Research Institute, University of Antwerp, Campus Drie Eiken - gebouw R - D.R.328, Universiteitsplein 1 (R Building, 3th Floor), 2610, Antwerp, Belgium.|University Psychiatric Center St. Norbertus, Stationsstraat 22, 2570, Duffel, Belgium.
authors: Violette
authors: V
authors: Coppens
authors: Collaborative Antwerp Psychiatric Research Institute, University of Antwerp, Campus Drie Eiken - gebouw R - D.R.328, Universiteitsplein 1 (R Building, 3th Floor), 2610, Antwerp, Belgium.
authors: Anne
authors: A
authors: Morsel
authors: Janssen Research and Development, A Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica N.V., Turnhoutseweg 30, 2340, Beerse, Belgium.
authors: Luc
authors: L
authors: Janssens
authors: Janssen Research and Development, A Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica N.V., Turnhoutseweg 30, 2340, Beerse, Belgium.|Institute Born-Bunge, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1 (T Building, 6th Floor), 2610, Antwerp, Belgium.
authors: Maarten
authors: M
authors: Timmers
authors: Collaborative Antwerp Psychiatric Research Institute, University of Antwerp, Campus Drie Eiken - gebouw R - D.R.328, Universiteitsplein 1 (R Building, 3th Floor), 2610, Antwerp, Belgium.|University Psychiatric Center St. Norbertus, Stationsstraat 22, 2570, Duffel, Belgium.
authors: Bernard G C
authors: BG
authors: Sabbe
authors: Collaborative Antwerp Psychiatric Research Institute, University of Antwerp, Campus Drie Eiken - gebouw R - D.R.328, Universiteitsplein 1 (R Building, 3th Floor), 2610, Antwerp, Belgium.|University Psychiatric Center St. Norbertus, Stationsstraat 22, 2570, Duffel, Belgium.|Psychiatric Hospital Broeders Alexianen, Provinciesteenweg 408, 2530, Boechout, Belgium.
authors: Manuel
authors: M
authors: Morrens
authors: Collaborative Antwerp Psychiatric Research Institute, University of Antwerp, Campus Drie Eiken - gebouw R - D.R.328, Universiteitsplein 1 (R Building, 3th Floor), 2610, Antwerp, Belgium.|Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radbout University, Kapittelweg 29, 6525, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
authors: Wouter
authors: W
authors: Hulstijn
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D000375:Aging / Q000523:psychology; D000704:Analysis of Variance; D001364:Awareness; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007859:Learning Disabilities / Q000209:etiology*; D008297:Male; D011939:Mental Recall; D008875:Middle Aged; D009043:Motor Activity / Q000502:physiology*; D009483:Neuropsychological Tests; D011597:Psychomotor Performance; D011930:Reaction Time; D021641:Recognition, Psychology; D012559:Schizophrenia / Q000150:complications*; D012565:Schizophrenic Psychology; D012691:Serial Learning / Q000502:physiology*; D055815:Young Adult
keywords: Aging and cognitive function; Explicit learning; Implicit sequence learning; Schizophrenia; Serial reaction time task