title: The Kelvin and Temperature Measurements.
abstract: The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) is defined from 0.65 K upwards to the highest temperature measurable by spectral radiation thermometry, the radiation thermometry being based on the Planck radiation law. When it was developed, the ITS-90 represented thermodynamic temperatures as closely as possible. Part I of this paper describes the realization of contact thermometry up to 1234.93 K, the temperature range in which the ITS-90 is defined in terms of calibration of thermometers at 15 fixed points and vapor pressure/temperature relations which are phase equilibrium states of pure substances. The realization is accomplished by using fixed-point devices, containing samples of the highest available purity, and suitable temperature-controlled environments. All components are constructed to achieve the defining equilibrium states of the samples for the calibration of thermometers. The high quality of the temperature realization and measurements is well documented. Various research efforts are described, including research to improve the uncertainty in thermodynamic temperatures by measuring the velocity of sound in gas up to 800 K, research in applying noise thermometry techniques, and research on thermocouples. Thermometer calibration services and high-purity samples and devices suitable for "on-site" thermometer calibration that are available to the thermometry community are described. Part II of the paper describes the realization of temperature above 1234.93 K for which the ITS-90 is defined in terms of the calibration of spectroradiometers using reference blackbody sources that are at the temperature of the equilibrium liquid-solid phase transition of pure silver, gold, or copper. The realization of temperature from absolute spectral or total radiometry over the temperature range from about 60 K to 3000 K is also described. The dissemination of the temperature scale using radiation thermometry from NIST to the customer is achieved by calibration of blackbody sources, tungsten-strip lamps, and pyrometers. As an example of the research efforts in absolute radiometry, which impacts the NIST spectral irradiance and radiance scales, results with filter radiometers and a high-temperature blackbody are summarized.
authors: National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-0001.
authors: B W
authors: BW
authors: Mangum
authors: National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-0001.
authors: G T
authors: GT
authors: Furukawa
authors: National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-0001.
authors: K G
authors: KG
authors: Kreider
authors: National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-0001.
authors: C W
authors: CW
authors: Meyer
authors: National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-0001.
authors: D C
authors: DC
authors: Ripple
authors: National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-0001.
authors: G F
authors: GF
authors: Strouse
authors: National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-0001.
authors: W L
authors: WL
authors: Tew
authors: National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-0001.
authors: M R
authors: MR
authors: Moldover
authors: National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-0001.
authors: B C
authors: BC
authors: Johnson
authors: National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-0001.
authors: H W
authors: HW
authors: Yoon
authors: National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-0001.
authors: C E
authors: CE
authors: Gibson
authors: National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-0001.
authors: R D
authors: RD
authors: Saunders
keywords: Johnson noise thermometry; Kelvin; SPRTs; acoustic thermometry; blackbody sources; calibrations; gas thermometry; pyrometers; radiation thermometry; thermocouples