title: DNA methylation changes and TE activity induced in tissue cultures of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.).
abstract: BACKGROUND
  In vitro plant regeneration via androgenesis or somatic embryogenesis is capable of inducing (epi)mutations that may affect sexual progenies. While epimutations are associated with DNA methylation, mutations could be due to the movement of transposons. The common notion is that both processes are linked. It is being assumed that demethylation activates transposable elements (TEs). Analysis of methylation changes and their relation with TEs activation in tissue cultures requires uniquely derived donor plants (Ds), their regenerants (Rs) and respective progeny (Ps) that would allow discrimination of processes not related to changes introduced via in vitro cultures. Moreover, a set of methods (RP-HPLC, SSAP, and MSTD) is needed to study whether different TEs families are being activated during in vitro tissue culture plant regeneration and whether their activity could be linked to DNA methylation changes or alternative explanations should be considered.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The in vitro tissue culture plant regeneration in barley was responsible for the induction of DNA methylation in regenerants and conservation of the methylation level in the progeny as shown by the RP-HPLC approach. No difference between andro- and embryo-derived Rs and Ps was observed. The SSAP and MSTD approach revealed that Ds and Rs were more polymorphic than Ps. Moreover, Rs individuals exhibited more polymorphisms with the MSTD than SSAP approach. The differences between Ds, Rs and Ps were also evaluated via ANOVA and AMOVA.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Stressful conditions during plant regeneration via in vitro tissue cultures affect regenerants and their sexual progeny leading to an increase in global DNA methylation of Rs and Ps compared to Ds in barley. The increased methylation level noted among regenerants remains unchanged in the Ps as indicated via RP-HPLC data. Marker-based experiments suggest that TEs are activated via in vitro tissue cultures and that, independently of the increased methylation, their activity in Rs is greater than in Ps. Thus, the increased methylation level may not correspond to the stabilization of TEs movement at least at the level of regenerants. The presence of TEs variation among Ds that were genetically and epigenetically uniform may suggest that at least some mobile elements may be active, and they may mask variation related to tissue cultures. Thus, tissue cultures may activate some TEs whereas the others remain intact, or their level of movement is changed. Finally, we suggest that sexual reproduction may be responsible for the stabilization of TEs.
authors: Department of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute-National Research Institute, Radzików, 05-870 Błonie, Poland.
authors: Renata
authors: R
authors: Orłowska
authors: Department of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute-National Research Institute, Radzików, 05-870 Błonie, Poland.
authors: Joanna
authors: J
authors: Machczyńska
authors: Department of Plant Biotechnology and Cytogenetics, Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute-National Research Institute, Radzików, 05-870 Błonie, Poland.
authors: Sylwia
authors: S
authors: Oleszczuk
authors: Department of Plant Biotechnology and Cytogenetics, Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute-National Research Institute, Radzików, 05-870 Błonie, Poland.
authors: Janusz
authors: J
authors: Zimny
authors: Department of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute-National Research Institute, Radzików, 05-870 Błonie, Poland.
authors: Piotr Tomasz
authors: PT
authors: Bednarek
keywords: Barley; MSTD; Methylation; RP-HPLC; SSAP; TEs; Tissue culture