title: Non-pharmacological interventions for cognitive impairment due to systemic cancer treatment.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  It is estimated that up to 75% of cancer survivors may experience cognitive impairment as a result of cancer treatment and given the increasing size of the cancer survivor population, the number of affected people is set to rise considerably in coming years. There is a need, therefore, to identify effective, non-pharmacological interventions for maintaining cognitive function or ameliorating cognitive impairment among people with a previous cancer diagnosis.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To evaluate the cognitive effects, non-cognitive effects, duration and safety of non-pharmacological interventions among cancer patients targeted at maintaining cognitive function or ameliorating cognitive impairment as a result of cancer or receipt of systemic cancer treatment (i.e. chemotherapy or hormonal therapies in isolation or combination with other treatments).
  
  
  METHODS
  We searched the Cochrane Centre Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE, Embase, PUBMED, Cumulative Index of Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) and PsycINFO databases. We also searched registries of ongoing trials and grey literature including theses, dissertations and conference proceedings. Searches were conducted for articles published from 1980 to 29 September 2015.
  
  
  METHODS
  Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of non-pharmacological interventions to improve cognitive impairment or to maintain cognitive functioning among survivors of adult-onset cancers who have completed systemic cancer therapy (in isolation or combination with other treatments) were eligible. Studies among individuals continuing to receive hormonal therapy were included. We excluded interventions targeted at cancer survivors with central nervous system (CNS) tumours or metastases, non-melanoma skin cancer or those who had received cranial radiation or, were from nursing or care home settings. Language restrictions were not applied.
  
  
  METHODS
  Author pairs independently screened, selected, extracted data and rated the risk of bias of studies. We were unable to conduct planned meta-analyses due to heterogeneity in the type of interventions and outcomes, with the exception of compensatory strategy training interventions for which we pooled data for mental and physical well-being outcomes. We report a narrative synthesis of intervention effectiveness for other outcomes.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Five RCTs describing six interventions (comprising a total of 235 participants) met the eligibility criteria for the review. Two trials of computer-assisted cognitive training interventions (n = 100), two of compensatory strategy training interventions (n = 95), one of meditation (n = 47) and one of physical activity intervention (n = 19) were identified. Each study focused on breast cancer survivors. All five studies were rated as having a high risk of bias. Data for our primary outcome of interest, cognitive function were not amenable to being pooled statistically. Cognitive training demonstrated beneficial effects on objectively assessed cognitive function (including processing speed, executive functions, cognitive flexibility, language, delayed- and immediate- memory), subjectively reported cognitive function and mental well-being. Compensatory strategy training demonstrated improvements on objectively assessed delayed-, immediate- and verbal-memory, self-reported cognitive function and spiritual quality of life (QoL). The meta-analyses of two RCTs (95 participants) did not show a beneficial effect from compensatory strategy training on physical well-being immediately (standardised mean difference (SMD) 0.12, 95% confidence interval (CI) -0.59 to 0.83; I(2)= 67%) or two months post-intervention (SMD - 0.21, 95% CI -0.89 to 0.47; I(2) = 63%) or on mental well-being two months post-intervention (SMD -0.38, 95% CI -1.10 to 0.34; I(2) = 67%). Lower mental well-being immediately post-intervention appeared to be observed in patients who received compensatory strategy training compared to wait-list controls (SMD -0.57, 95% CI -0.98 to -0.16; I(2) = 0%). We assessed the assembled studies using GRADE for physical and mental health outcomes and this evidence was rated to be low quality and, therefore findings should be interpreted with caution. Evidence for physical activity and meditation interventions on cognitive outcomes is unclear.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Overall, the, albeit low-quality evidence may be interpreted to suggest that non-pharmacological interventions may have the potential to reduce the risk of, or ameliorate, cognitive impairment following systemic cancer treatment. Larger, multi-site studies including an appropriate, active attentional control group, as well as consideration of functional outcomes (e.g. activities of daily living) are required in order to come to firmer conclusions about the benefits or otherwise of this intervention approach. There is also a need to conduct research into cognitive impairment among cancer patient groups other than women with breast cancer.
authors.affiliation: Centre for Public Health, Queen's University Belfast, Institute of Clinical Sciences Block B, Royal Victoria Hospital Site, Grosvenor Road, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK, BT12 6BJ.
authors.forename: Charlene J
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: Treanor
authors.forename: Una C
authors.initials: UC
authors.lastname: McMenamin
authors.forename: Roisin F
authors.initials: RF
authors.lastname: O'Neill
authors.forename: Chris R
authors.initials: CR
authors.lastname: Cardwell
authors.forename: Mike J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Clarke
authors.forename: Marie
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Cantwell
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Donnelly
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001943:Breast Neoplasms / Q000628:therapy*; D003071:Cognition / Q000502:physiology; D003072:Cognition Disorders / Q000209:etiology / Q000628:therapy*; D015444:Exercise; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D019122:Meditation / Q000379:methods; D008568:Memory; D008603:Mental Health; D009369:Neoplasms / Q000628:therapy; D016032:Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic; D017741:Survivors; D013813:Therapy, Computer-Assisted / Q000379:methods