title: Carbapenem resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumannii at Mulago Hospital in Kampala, Uganda (2007-2009).
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Multidrug resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumannii are common causes of health care associated infections worldwide. Carbapenems are effective against infections caused by multidrug resistant Gram-negative bacteria including Pseudomonas and Acinetobacter species. However, their use is threatened by the emergence of carbapenemase-producing strains. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of carbapenem-resistant P. aeruginosa and A. baumannii at Mulago Hospital in Kampala Uganda, and to establish whether the hospital environment harbors carbapenem-resistant Gram-negative rods.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Between February 2007 and September 2009, a total of 869 clinical specimens were processed for culture and sensitivity testing yielding 42 (5 %) P. aeruginosa and 29 (3 %) A. baumannii isolates, of which 24 % (10/42) P. aeruginosa and 31 % (9/29) A. baumannii were carbapenem-resistant. Additionally, 80 samples from the hospital environment were randomly collected and similarly processed yielding 58 % (46/80) P. aeruginosa and 14 % (11/80) A. baumannii, of which 33 % (15/46) P. aeruginosa and 55 % (6/11) A. baumannii were carbapenem-resistant. The total number of isolates studied was 128. Carbapenemase genes detected were bla IMP-like (36 %, 9/25), bla VIM-like (32 %, 8/25), bla SPM-like (16 %, 4/25); bla NDM-1-like (4 %, 1/25) in carbapenem-resistant P. aeruginosa, and bla OXA-23-like (60 %, 9/15), bla OXA-24-like (7 %, 1/15), bla OXA-58-like (13 %, 2/15), and bla VIM-like (13 %, 2/15) in carbapenem-resistant A. baumannii. Furthermore, class 1 integrons were detected in 38 % (48/128) of P. aeruginosa and Acinetobacter, 37 % (26/71) of which were in clinical isolates and 39 % (22/57) in environment isolates. Gene cassettes were found in 25 % (12/48) of integron-positive isolates. These were aminoglycoside adenylyltransferase ant(4')-IIb (3 isolates); trimethoprim-resistant dihydrofolate reductase dfrA (2 isolates); adenyltransferase aadAB (3 isolates); QacE delta1 multidrug exporter (2 isolates); quinolone resistance pentapeptide repeat protein qnr (1 isolate); and metallo-β-lactamase genes bla VIM-4-like, bla IMP-19-like, and bla IMP-26-like (1 isolate each). Gene cassettes were missing in 75 % (36/48) of the integron-positive isolates.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The prevalence of carbapenem-resistant P. aeruginosa and Acinetobacter among hospitalized patients at Mulago Hospital is low compared to rates from South-East Asia. However, it is high among isolates and in the environment, which is of concern given that the hospital environment is a potential source of infection for hospitalized patients and health care workers.
authors.affiliation: Department of Immunology and Molecular Biology, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda ; Department of Medical Microbiology, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda.
authors.forename: David P
authors.initials: DP
authors.lastname: Kateete
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Microbiology, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda ; College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda.
authors.forename: Ritah
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Nakanjako
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Microbiology, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda ; College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda ; Makerere University-Johns Hopkins University (MU-JHU) Core Lab at the Infectious Diseases Institute (IDI), College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda.
authors.forename: Juliet
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Namugenyi
authors.affiliation: College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda.
authors.forename: Joseph
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Erume
authors.affiliation: Department of Immunology and Molecular Biology, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda ; Department of Medical Microbiology, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda.
authors.forename: Moses L
authors.initials: ML
authors.lastname: Joloba
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Microbiology, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda.
authors.forename: Christine F
authors.initials: CF
authors.lastname: Najjuka
keywords: Carbapenemase genes; Class 1 integrons; Hospital environment; Metallo-beta-lactamases; OXA-carbapenemases