title: A predictive bone drilling force model for haptic rendering with experimental validation using fresh cadaveric bone.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Bone drilling simulators with virtual and haptic feedback provide a safe, cost-effective and repeatable alternative to traditional surgical training methods. To develop such a simulator, accurate haptic rendering based on a force model is required to feedback bone drilling forces based on user input. Current predictive bone drilling force models based on bovine bones with various drilling conditions and parameters are not representative of the bone drilling process in bone surgery. The objective of this study was to provide a bone drilling force model for haptic rendering based on calibration and validation experiments in fresh cadaveric bones with different bone densities.
  
  
  METHODS
  Using a commonly used drill bit geometry (2 mm diameter), feed rates (20-60 mm/min) and spindle speeds (4000-6000 rpm) in orthognathic surgeries, the bone drilling forces of specimens from two groups were measured and the calibration coefficients of the specific normal and frictional pressures were determined.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The comparison of the predicted forces and the measured forces from validation experiments with a large range of feed rates and spindle speeds demonstrates that the proposed bone drilling forces can predict the trends and average forces well.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The presented bone drilling force model can be used for haptic rendering in surgical simulators.
authors.affiliation: School of Mechanical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Mechanical System and Vibration, Institute of Biomedical Manufacturing and Life Quality Engineering, Shanghai, 200240, China.
authors.forename: Yanping
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Lin
authors.affiliation: Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, No. 415 Fengyang Rd, Shanghai, 200003, China.
authors.forename: Huajiang
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Chen
authors.affiliation: Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200011, China.
authors.forename: Dedong
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Yu
authors.affiliation: Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, No. 415 Fengyang Rd, Shanghai, 200003, China.
authors.forename: Ying
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Zhang
authors.affiliation: Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, No. 415 Fengyang Rd, Shanghai, 200003, China. yuanwenspine@163.com.
authors.forename: Wen
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Yuan
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D001842:Bone and Bones / Q000601:surgery*; D002102:Cadaver; D005246:Feedback; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008334:Mandible / Q000601:surgery*; D008875:Middle Aged; D008962:Models, Theoretical; D057909:Orthognathic Surgery / Q000193:education*; D000066908:Simulation Training
keywords: Bone drilling; Force model; Haptic rendering; Surgical simulator