title: Fate of Plutonium at a Former Nuclear Testing Site in Australia.
abstract: A series of the British nuclear tests conducted on mainland Australia between 1953 and 1963 dispersed long-lived radioactivity and nuclear weapons debris including plutonium (Pu), the legacy of which is a long-lasting source of radioactive contamination to the surrounding biosphere. A reliable assessment of the environmental impact of Pu contaminants and their implications for human health requires an understanding of their physical/chemical characteristics at the molecular scale. In this study, we identify the chemical form of the Pu remaining in the local soils at the Taranaki site, one of the former nuclear testing sites at Maralinga, South Australia. We herein reveal direct spectroscopic evidence that the Pu legacy remaining at the site exists as particulates of Pu(IV) oxyhydroxide compounds, a very concentrated and low-soluble form of Pu, which will serve as ongoing radioactive sources far into the future. Gamma-ray spectrometry and X-ray fluorescence analysis on a collected Pu particle indicate that the Pu in the particle originated in the so-called "Minor trials" that involved the dispersal of weapon components by highly explosive chemicals, not in the nuclear explosion tests called "Major trials". A comprehensive analysis of the data acquired from X-ray fluorescence mapping (XFM), X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES), and extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) suggests that the collected Pu particle forms a "core-shell" structure with the Pu(IV) oxyhydroxide core surrounded by an external layer containing Ca, Fe, and U, which further helps us to deduce a possible scenario of the physical/chemical transformation of the original Pu materials dispersed in the semiarid environment at Maralinga more than 50 years ago. These findings also highlight the importance of the comprehensive physical/chemical characterization of Pu contaminants for reliable environmental- and radiotoxicological assessment.
authors.affiliation: Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Institute of Resource Ecology , Bautzner Landstrasse 400, 01328 Dresden, Germany.|Institute for Environmental Research, Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, Locked Bag 2001, Kirrawee DC, New South Wales 2232, Australia.|School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of New South Wales , Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia.
authors.forename: Atsushi
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Ikeda-Ohno
authors.affiliation: Institute for Environmental Research, Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, Locked Bag 2001, Kirrawee DC, New South Wales 2232, Australia.
authors.forename: Lida Mokhber
authors.initials: LM
authors.lastname: Shahin
authors.affiliation: Australian Synchrotron, 800 Blackburn Road, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia.
authors.forename: Daryl L
authors.initials: DL
authors.lastname: Howard
authors.affiliation: School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of New South Wales , Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia.
authors.forename: Richard N
authors.initials: RN
authors.lastname: Collins
authors.affiliation: Institute for Environmental Research, Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, Locked Bag 2001, Kirrawee DC, New South Wales 2232, Australia.
authors.forename: Timothy E
authors.initials: TE
authors.lastname: Payne
authors.affiliation: Institute for Environmental Research, Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, Locked Bag 2001, Kirrawee DC, New South Wales 2232, Australia.
authors.forename: Mathew P
authors.initials: MP
authors.lastname: Johansen
mesh_terms: D001315:Australia; D054043:Nuclear Weapons; D011005:Plutonium; D012990:Soil Pollutants, Radioactive; D013051:Spectrometry, Gamma
chemical_list: D012990:Soil Pollutants, Radioactive; D011005:Plutonium