title: Bacterial resistance to antimicrobial agents and its impact on veterinary and human medicine.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Antimicrobial resistance has become a major challenge in veterinary medicine, particularly in the context of bacterial pathogens that play a role in both humans and animals.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  This review serves as an update on acquired resistance mechanisms in bacterial pathogens of human and animal origin, including examples of transfer of resistant pathogens between hosts and of resistance genes between bacteria.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Acquired resistance is based on resistance-mediating mutations or on mobile resistance genes. Although mutations are transferred vertically, mobile resistance genes are also transferred horizontally (by transformation, transduction or conjugation/mobilization), contributing to the dissemination of resistance. Mobile genes specifying any of the three major resistance mechanisms - enzymatic inactivation, reduced intracellular accumulation or modification of the cellular target sites - have been found in a variety of bacteria that may be isolated from animals. Such resistance genes are associated with plasmids, transposons, gene cassettes, integrative and conjugative elements or other mobile elements. Bacteria, including zoonotic pathogens, can be exchanged between animals and humans mainly via direct contact, but also via dust, aerosols or foods. Proof of the direction of transfer of resistant bacteria can be difficult and depends on the location of resistance genes or mutations in the chromosomal DNA or on a mobile element.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The wide variety in resistance and resistance transfer mechanisms will continue to ensure the success of bacterial pathogens in the future. Our strategies to counteract resistance and preserve the efficacy of antimicrobial agents need to be equally diverse and resourceful.
authors: Institute of Farm Animal Genetics, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Höltystr. 10, 31535, Neustadt-Mariensee, Germany.
authors: Stefan
authors: S
authors: Schwarz
authors: Clinical Sciences and Services, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA, UK.
authors: Anette
authors: A
authors: Loeffler
authors: Institute of Farm Animal Genetics, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Höltystr. 10, 31535, Neustadt-Mariensee, Germany.
authors: Kristina
authors: K
authors: Kadlec
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D001424:Bacterial Infections / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000662:veterinary; D024881:Drug Resistance, Bacterial; D006801:Humans; D015047:Zoonoses / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000382:microbiology
chemical_list: D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents