title: Theophylline: a review of population pharmacokinetic analyses.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Numerous population pharmacokinetic studies of theophylline have been conducted in paediatric and adult patients. The purpose of this review was to summarize the published studies concerning population pharmacokinetics of theophylline in patients of different ages and discuss factors that might cause the large variability in the pharmacokinetics of theophylline.
  
  
  METHODS
  A literature search was conducted in PubMed using the following keywords: 'theophylline', 'population pharmacokinetic(s)' and 'nonlinear mixed effect model'. Additionally, the relevant references listed in the retrieved articles were manually reviewed. All of the studies that reported the population pharmacokinetics of theophylline in humans were included in this review. However, articles were excluded if they were not written in English.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Sixteen articles were included in this review. Among them, 11 were conducted on paediatric patients, and five were conducted on adults. A one-compartment model with first-order elimination was employed in most of the included articles. A nonlinear mixed effect modelling approach (NONMEM) was the most commonly used software to develop a population pharmacokinetic model. Body weight and age (post-conceptional age and post-natal age) were the most important factors associated with the clearance (CL) of theophylline in paediatric patients. Body weight (ideal body weight and lean body mass), age and smoking status were most frequently used to estimate the CL of theophylline in adults. The median (range) estimate values of CL for paediatric and adult patients were 0·062 (0·0056-0·0949) L/h/kg and 0·053 (0·0493-0·0517) L/h/kg, respectively. The median values of the interindividual variability of CL were 33·5% in adults and 25·8% in paediatric patients. The mean values of the residual variability were 21% in paediatric patients and 14·3% in adults.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This review concludes that body weight and age were the most important factors associated with the clearance of theophylline in paediatric patients. Body weight, age and smoking were most frequently used to estimate the clearance of theophylline in adults. Future studies are warranted to detect the influence of new factors, such as cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A2 gene polymorphisms, on the pharmacokinetics of theophylline because some pharmacokinetic variability was not fully explained.
authors: Department of Pharmacy, Zhujiang Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.
authors: Y J
authors: YJ
authors: Ma
authors: Department of Pharmacy, Zhujiang Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.|Department of Biopharmaceutical, Yulin Normal University, Yulin, China.
authors: D Q
authors: DQ
authors: Jiang
authors: Department of Pharmacy, Zhujiang Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.
authors: J X
authors: JX
authors: Meng
authors: Department of Pharmacy, Zhujiang Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.
authors: M X
authors: MX
authors: Li
authors: Department of Pharmacy, Zhujiang Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.
authors: H H
authors: HH
authors: Zhao
authors: Department of Pharmacy, Zhujiang Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China. wliqing2014@163.com.
authors: Y
authors: Y
authors: Wang
authors: Department of Pharmacy, Zhujiang Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China. yongwh2005@163.com.|Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China. yongwh2005@163.com.
authors: L Q
authors: LQ
authors: Wang
mesh_terms: D001835:Body Weight; D006801:Humans; D008954:Models, Biological; D017711:Nonlinear Dynamics; D012984:Software; D013806:Theophylline / Q000493:pharmacokinetics*
chemical_list: D013806:Theophylline
keywords: nonlinear mixed effect model; population pharmacokinetics; theophylline