title: Sonar equations for planetary exploration.
abstract: The set of formulations commonly known as "the sonar equations" have for many decades been used to quantify the performance of sonar systems in terms of their ability to detect and localize objects submerged in seawater. The efficacy of the sonar equations, with individual terms evaluated in decibels, is well established in Earth's oceans. The sonar equations have been used in the past for missions to other planets and moons in the solar system, for which they are shown to be less suitable. While it would be preferable to undertake high-fidelity acoustical calculations to support planning, execution, and interpretation of acoustic data from planetary probes, to avoid possible errors for planned missions to such extraterrestrial bodies in future, doing so requires awareness of the pitfalls pointed out in this paper. There is a need to reexamine the assumptions, practices, and calibrations that work well for Earth to ensure that the sonar equations can be accurately applied in combination with the decibel to extraterrestrial scenarios. Examples are given for icy oceans such as exist on Europa and Ganymede, Titan's hydrocarbon lakes, and for the gaseous atmospheres of (for example) Jupiter and Venus.
authors: Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), P.O. Box 96864, 2509 JG, The Hague, The Netherlands.
authors: Michael A
authors: MA
authors: Ainslie
authors: Institute of Sound and Vibration Research, University of Southampton, Highfield, Southampton SO17 1BJ, United Kingdom.
authors: Timothy G
authors: TG
authors: Leighton