title: Beyond a good story: from Hawthorne Effect to reactivity in health professions education research.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Observational research is increasingly being used in health professions education (HPE) research, yet it is often criticised for being prone to observer effects (also known as the Hawthorne Effect), defined as a research participant's altered behaviour in response to being observed. This article explores this concern.
  
  
  METHODS
  First, this article briefly reviews the initial Hawthorne studies and the original formulation of the Hawthorne Effect, before turning to contemporary studies of the Hawthorne Effect in HPE and beyond. Second, using data from two observational studies (in the operating theatre and in the intensive care unit), this article investigates the Hawthorne Effect in HPE.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Evidence of a Hawthorne Effect is scant, and amounts to little more than a good story. This is surprising given the foundational nature of the Hawthorne Studies in the social sciences and the prevalence of our concern with observer effects in HPE research. Moreover, the multiple and inconsistent uses of the Hawthorne Effect have left researchers without a coherent and helpful understanding of research participants' responses to observation. The authors' HPE research illustrates the complexity of observer effects in HPE, suggests that significant alteration of behaviour is unlikely in many research contexts, and shows how sustained contact with participants over time improves the quality of data collection.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This article thus concludes with three recommendations: that researchers, editors and reviewers in the HPE community use the phrase 'participant reactivity' when considering the participant, observer and research question triad; that researchers invest in interpersonal relationships at their study site to mitigate the effects of altered behaviour; and that researchers use theory to make sense of participants' altered behaviour and use it as a window into the social world. The term 'participant reactivity' better reflects current scientific understandings of the research process and highlights the cognitive work required of participants to alter their behaviour when observed. Perhaps the most important lesson to be learned from the original Hawthorne experiments is the power of a good story (Levitt & List, 2011).
authors: Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy and Department of Anesthesia, Faculty of Medicine, The Wilson Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
authors: Elise
authors: E
authors: Paradis
authors: Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of Pittsburgh Medical Centre, Magee-Womens Hospital, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.
authors: Gary
authors: G
authors: Sutkin
mesh_terms: D035843:Biomedical Research; D015987:Effect Modifier, Epidemiologic; D006281:Health Occupations / Q000193:education*; D006801:Humans; D064887:Observational Studies as Topic