title: Noncoding Subgenomic Flavivirus RNA Is Processed by the Mosquito RNA Interference Machinery and Determines West Nile Virus Transmission by Culex pipiens Mosquitoes.
abstract: Flaviviruses, such as Zika virus, yellow fever virus, dengue virus, and West Nile virus (WNV), are a serious concern for human health. Flaviviruses produce an abundant noncoding subgenomic flavivirus RNA (sfRNA) in infected cells. sfRNA results from stalling of the host 5'-3' exoribonuclease XRN1/Pacman on conserved RNA structures in the 3' untranslated region (UTR) of the viral genomic RNA. sfRNA production is conserved in insect-specific, mosquito-borne, and tick-borne flaviviruses and flaviviruses with no known vector, suggesting a pivotal role for sfRNA in the flavivirus life cycle. Here, we investigated the function of sfRNA during WNV infection of Culex pipiens mosquitoes and evaluated its role in determining vector competence. An sfRNA1-deficient WNV was generated that displayed growth kinetics similar to those of wild-type WNV in both RNA interference (RNAi)-competent and -compromised mosquito cell lines. Small-RNA deep sequencing of WNV-infected mosquitoes indicated an active small interfering RNA (siRNA)-based antiviral response for both the wild-type and sfRNA1-deficient viruses. Additionally, we provide the first evidence that sfRNA is an RNAi substrate in vivo Two reproducible small-RNA hot spots within the 3' UTR/sfRNA of the wild-type virus mapped to RNA stem-loops SL-III and 3' SL, which stick out of the three-dimensional (3D) sfRNA structure model. Importantly, we demonstrate that sfRNA-deficient WNV displays significantly decreased infection and transmission rates in vivo when administered via the blood meal. Finally, we show that transmission and infection rates are not affected by sfRNA after intrathoracic injection, thereby identifying sfRNA as a key driver to overcome the mosquito midgut infection barrier. This is the first report to describe a key biological function of sfRNA for flavivirus infection of the arthropod vector, providing an explanation for the strict conservation of sfRNA production.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  Understanding the flavivirus transmission cycle is important to identify novel targets to interfere with disease and to aid development of virus control strategies. Flaviviruses produce an abundant noncoding viral RNA called sfRNA in both arthropod and mammalian cells. To evaluate the role of sfRNA in flavivirus transmission, we infected mosquitoes with the flavivirus West Nile virus and an sfRNA-deficient mutant West Nile virus. We demonstrate that sfRNA determines the infection and transmission rates of West Nile virus in Culex pipiens mosquitoes. Comparison of infection via the blood meal versus intrathoracic injection, which bypasses the midgut, revealed that sfRNA is important to overcome the mosquito midgut barrier. We also show that sfRNA is processed by the antiviral RNA interference machinery in mosquitoes. This is the first report to describe a pivotal biological function of sfRNA in arthropods. The results explain why sfRNA production is evolutionarily conserved.
authors: Laboratory of Virology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
authors: G P
authors: GP
authors: Göertz
authors: Laboratory of Virology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.|Nuffield Department of Medicine, Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.
authors: J J
authors: JJ
authors: Fros
authors: Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Center, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
authors: P
authors: P
authors: Miesen
authors: Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
authors: C B F
authors: CBF
authors: Vogels
authors: Laboratory of Virology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
authors: M L
authors: ML
authors: van der Bent
authors: Laboratory of Virology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
authors: C
authors: C
authors: Geertsema
authors: Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
authors: C J M
authors: CJM
authors: Koenraadt
authors: Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Center, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
authors: R P
authors: http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0221-4689
authors: RP
authors: van Rij
authors: Laboratory of Virology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
authors: M M
authors: MM
authors: van Oers
authors: Laboratory of Virology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands gorben.pijlman@wur.nl.
authors: G P
authors: GP
authors: Pijlman
mesh_terms: D020413:3' Untranslated Regions / Q000235:genetics; D000818:Animals; D002460:Cell Line; D002522:Chlorocebus aethiops; D003465:Culex / Q000235:genetics / Q000821:virology*; D009033:Culicidae / Q000235:genetics* / Q000821:virology; D003716:Dengue Virus / Q000235:genetics; D005416:Flavivirus / Q000235:genetics*; D007303:Insect Vectors / Q000235:genetics; D034622:RNA Interference / Q000502:physiology*; D034741:RNA, Small Interfering / Q000235:genetics; D012367:RNA, Viral / Q000235:genetics*; D014709:Vero Cells; D014901:West Nile Fever / Q000635:transmission* / Q000821:virology; D014902:West Nile virus / Q000235:genetics*; D015005:Yellow fever virus / Q000235:genetics; D000071244:Zika Virus / Q000235:genetics; D000071243:Zika Virus Infection / Q000635:transmission / Q000821:virology
chemical_list: D020413:3' Untranslated Regions; D034741:RNA, Small Interfering; D012367:RNA, Viral