title: Managing distance and covariate information with point-based clustering.
abstract: Geographic perspectives of disease and the human condition often involve point-based observations and questions of clustering or dispersion within a spatial context. These problems involve a finite set of point observations and are constrained by a larger, but finite, set of locations where the observations could occur. Developing a rigorous method for pattern analysis in this context requires handling spatial covariates, a method for constrained finite spatial clustering, and addressing bias in geographic distance measures. An approach, based on Ripley's K and applied to the problem of clustering with deliberate self-harm (DSH), is presented.
  
  
  
  Point-based Monte-Carlo simulation of Ripley's K, accounting for socio-economic deprivation and sources of distance measurement bias, was developed to estimate clustering of DSH at a range of spatial scales. A rotated Minkowski L1 distance metric allowed variation in physical distance and clustering to be assessed. Self-harm data was derived from an audit of 2 years' emergency hospital presentations (n = 136) in a New Zealand town (population ~50,000). Study area was defined by residential (housing) land parcels representing a finite set of possible point addresses.
  
  
  
  Area-based deprivation was spatially correlated. Accounting for deprivation and distance bias showed evidence for clustering of DSH for spatial scales up to 500 m with a one-sided 95 % CI, suggesting that social contagion may be present for this urban cohort.
  
  
  
  Many problems involve finite locations in geographic space that require estimates of distance-based clustering at many scales. A Monte-Carlo approach to Ripley's K, incorporating covariates and models for distance bias, are crucial when assessing health-related clustering. The case study showed that social network structure defined at the neighbourhood level may account for aspects of neighbourhood clustering of DSH. Accounting for covariate measures that exhibit spatial clustering, such as deprivation, are crucial when assessing point-based clustering.
authors: Information Science Department, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand. peter.whigham@otago.ac.nz.
authors: Peter A
authors: PA
authors: Whigham
authors: University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
authors: Brandon
authors: B
authors: de Graaf
authors: University of Otago, Invercargill, New Zealand.
authors: Rashmi
authors: R
authors: Srivastava
authors: University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
authors: Paul
authors: P
authors: Glue
mesh_terms: D000465:Algorithms; D016000:Cluster Analysis; D003198:Computer Simulation; D040362:Geographic Information Systems / Q000145:classification / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D005843:Geography; D006801:Humans; D008962:Models, Theoretical; D009010:Monte Carlo Method; D009520:New Zealand; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors; D014505:Urban Population / Q000145:classification / Q000706:statistics & numerical data
keywords: Clustering; Deliberate self-harm; Deprivation; Minkowski distance; Monte-Carlo simulation; Ripley’s K; Social contagion