Clostridium difficile Infection in Production Animals and Avian Species: A Review.
Clostridium difficile is the leading cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea and colitis in hospitalized humans. Recently, C. difficile infection (CDI) has been increasingly recognized as a cause of neonatal enteritis in food animals such as pigs, resulting in stunted growth, delays in weaning, and mortality, as well as colitis in large birds such as ostriches. C. difficile is a strictly anaerobic spore-forming bacterium, which produces two toxins A (TcdA) and B (TcdB) as its main virulence factors. The majority of strains isolated from animals produce an additional binary toxin (C. difficile transferase) that is associated with increased virulence. C. difficile is ubiquitous in the environment and has a wide host range. This review summarizes the epidemiology, clinical presentations, risk factors, and laboratory diagnosis of CDI in animals. Increased awareness by veterinarians and animal owners of the significance of clinical disease caused by C. difficile in livestock and avians is needed. Finally, this review provides an overview on methods for controlling environmental contamination and potential therapeutics available.
1 Microbiology & Immunology, School of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Western Australia , Nedlands, WA, Australia .
Peter
P
Moono
2 Department of Microbiology, PathWest Laboratory Medicine, Queen Elizabeth II Medical Centre , Nedlands, WA, Australia .
Niki F
NF
Foster
3 School of Veterinary & Life Sciences, Murdoch University , Murdoch, WA, Australia .
David J
DJ
Hampson
1 Microbiology & Immunology, School of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Western Australia , Nedlands, WA, Australia .
Daniel R
DR
Knight
4 Healthcare Associated Infection Unit, Department of Health, Communicable Disease Control Directorate, Shenton Park, WA, Australia .
Lauren E
LE
Bloomfield
1 Microbiology & Immunology, School of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Western Australia , Nedlands, WA, Australia .|2 Department of Microbiology, PathWest Laboratory Medicine, Queen Elizabeth II Medical Centre , Nedlands, WA, Australia .|3 School of Veterinary & Life Sciences, Murdoch University , Murdoch, WA, Australia .|4 Healthcare Associated Infection Unit, Department of Health, Communicable Disease Control Directorate, Shenton Park, WA, Australia .|5 School of Medical & Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University , Joondalup, WA, Australia .
Thomas V
TV
Riley
D000818:Animals; D000831:Animals, Newborn; D001426:Bacterial Proteins / Q000096:biosynthesis / Q000302:isolation & purification; D001427:Bacterial Toxins / Q000096:biosynthesis / Q000302:isolation & purification; D001715:Bird Diseases / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000382:microbiology* / Q000503:physiopathology; D002417:Cattle; D002418:Cattle Diseases / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000382:microbiology / Q000503:physiopathology; D016360:Clostridioides difficile / Q000145:classification / Q000302:isolation & purification / Q000378:metabolism / Q000472:pathogenicity*; D003967:Diarrhea / Q000209:etiology / Q000662:veterinary; D004761:Enterocolitis, Pseudomembranous / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000382:microbiology / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000662:veterinary*; D004768:Enterotoxins / Q000096:biosynthesis / Q000302:isolation & purification; D005243:Feces / Q000382:microbiology; D058751:Livestock; D058889:Molecular Typing / Q000662:veterinary; D020310:Struthioniformes; D034421:Sus scrofa; D013552:Swine; D013553:Swine Diseases / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000382:microbiology / Q000503:physiopathology; D014774:Virulence; D037521:Virulence Factors / Q000096:biosynthesis / Q000302:isolation & purification
D001426:Bacterial Proteins; D001427:Bacterial Toxins; D004768:Enterotoxins; D037521:Virulence Factors; C041348:tcdA protein, Clostridium difficile; C031815:toxB protein, Clostridium difficile
Clostridium difficile infection; avian species; clinical impact; environmental control; laboratory diagnostics; production animals