The Origins of Mental Toughness - Prosocial Behavior and Low Internalizing and Externalizing Problems at Age 5 Predict Higher Mental Toughness Scores at Age 14.
BACKGROUND
The concept of mental toughness (MT) has gained increasing importance among groups other than elite athletes by virtue of its psychological importance and explanatory power for a broad range of health-related behaviors. However, no study has focused so far on the psychological origins of MT. Therefore, the aims of the present study were: to explore, to what extent the psychological profiles of preschoolers aged five were associated with both (1) MT scores and (2) sleep disturbances at age 14, and 3) to explore possible gender differences.


METHODS
Nine years after their first assessment at age five (preschoolers), a total of 77 adolescents (mean age: 14.35 years; SD = 1.22; 42% females) took part in this follow-up study. At baseline, both parents and teachers completed the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), covering internalizing and externalizing problems, hyperactivity, negative peer relationships, and prosocial behavior. At follow-up, participants completed a booklet of questionnaires covering socio-demographic data, MT, and sleep disturbances.


RESULTS
Higher prosocial behavior, lower negative peer relationships, and lower internalizing and externalizing problems at age five, as rated by parents and teachers, were associated with self-reported higher MT and lower sleep disturbances at age 14. At age 14, and relative to males, females had lower MT scores and reported more sleep disturbances.


CONCLUSIONS
The pattern of results suggests that MT traits during adolescence may have their origins in the pre-school years.
Center for Affective, Stress and Sleep Disorders, Psychiatric Clinics of the University of Basel Basel, Switzerland.
Dena
D
Sadeghi Bahmani
Department of Adult Psychiatry, Psychiatric Services Solothurn Solothurn, Switzerland.
Martin
M
Hatzinger
Department of Sport, Exercise and Health, Division of Sport and Psychosocial Health, University of Basel Basel, Switzerland.
Markus
M
Gerber
Department of Psychology, University of Warwick Coventry, UK.
Sakari
S
Lemola
Department of Psychology, Manchester Metropolitan University Manchester, UK.
Peter J
PJ
Clough
Department of Teacher Education, University of Konstanz Konstanz, Germany.
Sonja
S
Perren
Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, University of Leipzig Leipzig, Germany.
Kay
K
von Klitzing
Institute of Psychology, University of Zurich Zurich, Switzerland.
Agnes
A
von Wyl
Center for Affective, Stress and Sleep Disorders, Psychiatric Clinics of the University of Basel Basel, Switzerland.
Edith
E
Holsboer-Trachsler
Center for Affective, Stress and Sleep Disorders, Psychiatric Clinics of the University of BaselBasel, Switzerland; Department of Sport, Exercise and Health, Division of Sport and Psychosocial Health, University of BaselBasel, Switzerland.
Serge
S
Brand
externalizing problems; internalizing problems; long-term; mental toughness; origins; pro-social behavior; sleep