title: Comparative studies on the effects of clinically used anticonvulsants on the oxidative stress biomarkers in pentylenetetrazole-induced kindling model of epileptogenesis in mice.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Oxidative stress plays a key role in the pathogenesis of epilepsy and contributes in underlying epileptogenesis process. Anticonvulsant drugs targeting the oxidative stress domain of epileptogenesis may provide better control of seizure. The present study was carried out to investigate the effect of clinically used anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs) on the course of pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced kindling and oxidative stress markers in mice.
  
  
  METHODS
  Six mechanistically heterogeneous anticonvulsants: phenobarbital, phenytoin, levetiracetam, pregabalin, topiramate, and felbamate were selected and their redox profiles were determined. Diazepam was used as a drug control for comparison. Kindling was induced by repeated injections of a sub-convulsive dose of PTZ (50 mg/kg, s.c.) on alternate days until seizure score 5 was evoked in the control kindled group. Anticonvulsants were administered daily. Following PTZ kindling, oxidative stress biomarkers were assessed in homogenized whole brain samples and estimated for the levels of nitric oxide, peroxide, malondialdehyde, protein carbonyl, reduced glutathione, and activities of nitric oxide synthase and superoxide dismutase.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Biochemical analysis revealed a significant increase in the levels of reactive oxygen species with a parallel decrease in endogenous anti-oxidants in PTZ-kindled control animals. Daily treatment with levetiracetam and felbamate significantly decreased the PTZ-induced seizure score as well as the levels of nitric oxide (p<0.001), nitric oxide synthase activity (p<0.05), peroxide levels (p<0.05), and malondialdehyde (p<0.05). Levetiracetam and felbamate significantly decreased lipid and protein peroxidation whereas topiramate was found to reduce lipid peroxidation only.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  An AED that produces anticonvulsant effect by the diversified mechanism of action such as levetiracetam, felbamate, and topiramate exhibited superior anti-oxidative stress activity in addition to their anticonvulsant activity.
authors.forename: Faizan
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Mazhar
authors.forename: Saima M
authors.initials: SM
authors.lastname: Malhi
authors.forename: Shabana U
authors.initials: SU
authors.lastname: Simjee
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000927:Anticonvulsants / Q000494:pharmacology / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000378:metabolism; D007696:Kindling, Neurologic / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000378:metabolism*; D015227:Lipid Peroxidation / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology; D008297:Male; D051379:Mice; D009569:Nitric Oxide / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors / Q000378:metabolism; D018384:Oxidative Stress / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000502:physiology; D010433:Pentylenetetrazole / Q000633:toxicity*; D011897:Random Allocation; D012640:Seizures / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000378:metabolism*; D016896:Treatment Outcome
chemical_list: D000927:Anticonvulsants; D015415:Biomarkers; D009569:Nitric Oxide; D010433:Pentylenetetrazole