title: Persistent Supercooling of Reproductive Shoots Is Enabled by Structural Ice Barriers Being Active Despite an Intact Xylem Connection.
abstract: Extracellular ice nucleation usually occurs at mild subzero temperatures in most plants. For persistent supercooling of certain plant parts ice barriers are necessary to prevent the entry of ice from already frozen tissues. The reproductive shoot of Calluna vulgaris is able to supercool down to below -22°C throughout all developmental stages (shoot elongation, flowering, fruiting) despite an established xylem conductivity. After localization of the persistent ice barrier between the reproductive and vegetative shoot at the base of the pedicel by infrared differential thermal analysis, the currently unknown structural features of the ice barrier tissue were anatomically analyzed on cross and longitudinal sections. The ice barrier tissue was recognized as a 250 μm long constriction zone at the base of the pedicel that lacked pith tissue and intercellular spaces. Most cell walls in this region were thickened and contained hydrophobic substances (lignin, suberin, and cutin). A few cell walls had what appeared to be thicker cellulose inclusions. In the ice barrier tissue, the area of the xylem was as much as 5.7 times smaller than in vegetative shoots and consisted of tracheids only. The mean number of conducting units in the xylem per cross section was reduced to 3.5% of that in vegetative shoots. Diameter of conducting units and tracheid length were 70% and 60% (respectively) of that in vegetative shoots. From vegetative shoots water transport into the ice barrier must pass pit membranes that are likely impermeable to ice. Pit apertures were about 1.9 μm x 0.7 μm, which was significantly smaller than in the vegetative shoot. The peculiar anatomical features of the xylem at the base of the pedicel suggest that the diameter of pores in pit membranes could be the critical constriction for ice propagation into the persistently supercooled reproductive shoots of C. vulgaris.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Botany, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.
authors.forename: Edith
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Kuprian
authors.affiliation: USDA-ARS and North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States of America.
authors.forename: Tan D
authors.initials: TD
authors.lastname: Tuong
authors.affiliation: Division of Histology and Embryology, Innsbruck Medical University, Innsbruck, Austria.
authors.forename: Kristian
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Pfaller
authors.affiliation: Institute of Botany, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.
authors.forename: Johanna
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Wagner
authors.affiliation: USDA-ARS and North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States of America.
authors.forename: David P
authors.initials: DP
authors.lastname: Livingston
authors.affiliation: Institute of Botany, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.
authors.forename: Gilbert
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Neuner
mesh_terms: D029795:Calluna / Q000502:physiology*; D005615:Freezing; D007053:Ice; D008855:Microscopy, Electron, Scanning; D018520:Plant Shoots / Q000502:physiology*; D052584:Xylem / Q000502:physiology*
chemical_list: D007053:Ice