title: Evaluation of sexual dimorphism by discriminant function analysis of toe length (1T-5T) of adult Igbo populace in Nigeria.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Sex determination is an important and one of the foremost criteria in establishing the identity of an individual, and this is achieved by investigating various anatomical structures to establish sex discriminatory features. The present study conducted baseline data for the toe with a view of finding discriminatory sex characteristics.
  
  
  METHODS
  A total of 420 subjects were studied by direct linear measurements of the toe length (big toe [1T] to the fifth toes [5T]) of both feet using a digital Vernier caliper with accuracy of 0.01 mm. Statistical Package for Social Sciences  (IBM, version 23, Armonk, New York, USA), Levene's ANOVA outcome informed the use of t-tests to compare mean differences. Discriminant function analysis (DFA) was used to evaluate the possibility of sex categorization. The significance level was set at 95%.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The mean ± standard deviation values of the right (R) toes for the males were 49.63 ± 4.43 mm (1T), 36.92 ± 5.14 mm (2T), 30.35 ± 4.95 mm (3T), 25.55 ± 3.97 mm (4T) and 22.21 ± 2.94 mm (5T), whereas the female values were 45.73 ± 4.07 mm (1T), 33.31 ± 4.66 mm (2T), 26.63 ± 4.02 mm (3T), 22.89 ± 3.43 mm (4T), and 19.77 ± 2.70 mm (5T). The left male values were 49.16 ± 4.32 mm (1T), 36.82 ± 5.16 mm (2T), 30.88 ± 4.91 mm (3T), 26.13 ± 3.99 mm (4T), and 22.46 ± 3.24 mm (5T), whereas the female values were 45.33 ± 4.05 mm (1T), 33.05 ± 4.70 mm (2T), 27.27 ± 4.29 mm (3T), 23.10 ± 3.36 mm (4T), 19.81 ± 2.59 mm (5T). From the results, males displayed significantly higher mean values than females in all measured parameters (t = 2.405, P = 0.018) with no asymmetry (P > 0.05); although T3 and T4 were larger on the left foot. The DFA model when tested with the present data derived a significant F likelihood ratio test (P < 0.001), a Wilks' lambda predictability value of 0.759 having a model accuracy of 69.5% with a better prediction for female (70%) than males (69%).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The use of toe length alone may not be effective for sex differentiation; however, it can serve as an adjunct in forensic investigation involving sex identification.
authors.affiliation: Department of Human Anatomy, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria; Department of Human Anatomy, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
authors.forename: Stephen A
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Alabi
authors.affiliation: Department of Human Anatomy, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
authors.forename: Blessing C
authors.initials: BC
authors.lastname: Didia
authors.affiliation: Department of Human Anatomy, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
authors.forename: Gabriel Sunday
authors.initials: GS
authors.lastname: Oladipo
authors.affiliation: Department of Human Anatomy, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
authors.forename: Eric O
authors.initials: EO
authors.lastname: Aigbogun
keywords: Discriminant function analysis; Igbo; sexual dimorphism; toe length