title: The significance of petroleum bitumen in ancient Egyptian mummies.
abstract: Mummification was practised in ancient Egypt for more than 3000 years, emerging from initial observations of buried bodies preserved by natural desiccation. The use of organic balms (and other funerary practices) was a later introduction necessitated by more humid burial environments, especially tombs. The dark colour of many mummies led to the assumption that petroleum bitumen (or natural asphalt) was ubiquitous in mummification; however, this has been questioned for more than 100 years. We test this by investigating 91 materials comprising balms, tissues and textiles from 39 mummies dating from ca 3200 BC to AD 395. Targeted petroleum bitumen biomarker (steranes and hopanes) analyses by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry selected ion monitoring (GC-MS SIM, m/z 217 and 191) showed no detectable bitumen use before the New Kingdom (ca 1550-1070 BC). However, bitumen was used in 50% of New Kingdom to Late Period mummies, rising to 87% of Ptolemaic/Roman Period mummies. Quantitative determinations using (14)C analyses reveal that even at peak use balms were never more than 45% w/w bitumen. Critically, the dark colour of balms can be simulated by heating/ageing mixtures of fats, resins and beeswax known to be used in balms. The application of black/dark brown balms to bodies was deliberate after the New Kingdom reflecting changing funerary beliefs and shifts in religious ideology.This article is part of the themed issue 'Quantitative mass spectrometry'.
authors.affiliation: Organic Geochemistry Unit, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, UK.
authors.forename: K A
authors.initials: KA
authors.lastname: Clark
authors.affiliation: Department of Egyptology, The American University in Cairo, AUC Avenue, PO Box 74, Tagammu 5, New Cairo 11835, Egypt.
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Ikram
authors.affiliation: Organic Geochemistry Unit, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, UK r.p.evershed@bristol.ac.uk.
authors.forename: R P
authors.identifier: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9483-2750
authors.initials: RP
authors.lastname: Evershed
mesh_terms: D002250:Carbon Radioisotopes; D004534:Egypt; D008401:Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry; D006838:Hydrocarbons / Q000032:analysis*; D009106:Mummies; D010578:Petroleum / Q000032:analysis*
chemical_list: D002250:Carbon Radioisotopes; D006838:Hydrocarbons; D010578:Petroleum; C006647:asphalt
keywords: asphalt; biomarkers; mummification; quantification; radiocarbon analysis