title: Validation of Simplified Tools for Assessment of Sodium Intake in Iranian Population: Rationale, Design and Initial Findings.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The 24-hour urine sodium excretion is considered the gold standard method to estimate salt intake. However, since this method is not easy to perform, this study developed two instruments, including a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) and one spot urine sodium excretion, to assess sodium intake. These two methods were then compared with 24-h urine sodium excretion and twelve 24-h recalls during a year.
  
  
  METHODS
  This study was performed on 219 healthy subjects aged ≥ 6 years in 2014-2015. The FFQ was completed twice, at baseline and one year thereafter, to examine the reproducibility of the FFQ. The validity of three spot urine sodium excretions in the morning, afternoon, and evening and FFQ for the assessment of sodium intake were compared against the 24-h urine sodium excretion method. Moreover, the validity of FFQ was examined against 24-h dietary recalls for the assessment of total sodium consumption and contribution of food groups to sodium intake. The content validity of the FFQ was estimated by an expert panel including 10 nutritionists.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Based on their nutrients, the final food items were categorized into 11 groups including: 1) dairy products, 2) fruits, 3) vegetables, 4) meat and egg, 5) grains and legumes, 6) mixed dishes, prepared foods, and restaurant foods, 8) nuts and seeds, 8) oils and fats, 9) sauces and desserts, 10) drinks, and 11) others.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Spot urine and a specific FFQ comprising 136 items were used to develop a method for the assessment of sodium intake and contribution of foods to its intake among the Iranian population. This method can be used in large-scale population studies at the national level.
authors.affiliation: Isfahan Cardiovascular Research Center, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran, Hypertension Research Center, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran.
authors.forename: Noushin
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Mohammadifard
authors.affiliation: Hypertension Research Center, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran, Interventional Cardiology Research Center, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran.
authors.forename: Ali Reza
authors.initials: AR
authors.lastname: Khosravi
authors.affiliation: Department of Community Nutrition, School of Nutrition and Food Science, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran, Food Security Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran, Department of Community Nutrition, School of Nutritional Sciences and Dietetics, Tehran University of Medical Sciences,Tehran, Iran.
authors.forename: Ahmad
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Esmaillzadeh
authors.affiliation: Epidemiology and Biostatistics Department, Health School, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran, Cardiac Rehabilitation Research Center, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran.
authors.forename: Awat
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Feizi
authors.affiliation: Nutrition Department, The Ministry of Health and Medical Education, Tehran, Iran.
authors.forename: Zahra
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Abdollahi
authors.affiliation: Nutrition Department, The Ministry of Health and Medical Education, Tehran, Iran.
authors.forename: Forouzan
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Salehi
authors.affiliation: Isfahan Cardiovascular Research Center, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran.
authors.forename: Nizal
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Sarrafzadegan
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000886:Anthropometry; D001794:Blood Pressure; D002648:Child; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D004032:Diet; D004034:Diet Surveys / Q000379:methods*; D005260:Female; D064368:Healthy Volunteers; D006801:Humans; D007492:Iran; D008297:Male; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012982:Sodium, Dietary / Q000652:urine*; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D012982:Sodium, Dietary