title: Specialized or opportunistic-how does the high mountain endemic butterfly Erebia nivalis survive in its extreme habitats?
abstract: High mountain ecosystems are a challenge for the survival of animal and plant species, which have to evolve specific adaptations to cope with the prevailing extreme conditions. The strategies to survive may reach from opportunistic to highly adapted traits. One species successfully surviving under these conditions is the here studied butterfly Erebia nivalis. In a mark-release-recapture study performed in the Hohe Tauern National Park (Austria) from 22 July to 26 August 2013, we marked 1386 individuals and recaptured 342 of these. For each capture event, we recorded the exact point of capture and various other traits (wing conditions, behavior, nectar sources). The population showed a partial protandrous demography with the minority of males emerging prior to the females, but the majority being synchronized with them. Males and females differed significantly in their behavior with males being more flight active and females nectaring and resting more. Both sexes showed preferences for the same plant species as nectar sources, but this specialization apparently is the result of a rapid individual adaptation to the locally available flowers. Estimates of the realized dispersal distances predicted a comparatively high amount of long-distance flights, especially for females. Therefore, the adaptation of Erebia nivalis to the unpredictable high mountain conditions might be a mixture of opportunism and specialized traits.
authors.affiliation: Biogeography, Trier University, Trier, Germany.
authors.forename: Stefan
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Ehl
authors.affiliation: Biogeography, Trier University, Trier, Germany.
authors.forename: Vivian
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Dalstein
authors.affiliation: Biogeography, Trier University, Trier, Germany.
authors.forename: Fabienne
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Tull
authors.affiliation: Haus der Natur Salzburg, Department Entomology, Salzburg, Austria.
authors.forename: Patrick
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Gros
authors.affiliation: Senckenberg German Entomological Institute, Department Taxonomy and Biogeography, Müncheberg, Germany.|Entomology, Department of Zoology, Institute of Biology, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, (Saale), Germany.
authors.forename: Thomas
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Schmitt
mesh_terms: D000220:Adaptation, Biological; D000531:Altitude; D000818:Animals; D001317:Austria; D001522:Behavior, Animal; D002080:Butterflies; D017753:Ecosystem; D005260:Female; D008297:Male
keywords: alpine butterflies; movement patterns; nectar sources; opportunistic behavior; partial protandry; population demography