Distribution of Human Norovirus in the Coastal Waters of South Korea.
The presence of human norovirus in the aquatic environment can cause outbreaks related to recreational activities and the consumption of norovirus-contaminated clams. In this study, we investigated the prevalence of norovirus genogroups I (GI) and II (GII) in the coastal aquatic environment in South Korea (March 2014 to February 2015). A total of 504 water samples were collected periodically from four coastal areas (total sites = 63), of which 44 sites were in estuaries (clam fisheries) and 19 were in inflow streams. RT-PCR analysis targeting ORF2 region C revealed that 20.6% of the water samples were contaminated by GI (13.3%) or GII (16.6%). The prevalence of human norovirus was higher in winter/spring than in summer/fall, and higher in inflow streams (50.0%) than in estuaries (7.9%). A total of 229 human norovirus sequences were identified from the water samples, and phylogenetic analysis showed that the sequences clustered into eight GI genotypes (GI.1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 9) and nine GII genotypes (GII.2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 11, 13, 17, and 21). This study highlighted three issues: 1) a strong correlation between norovirus contamination via inflow streams and coastal areas used in clam fisheries; 2) increased prevalence of certain non-GII.4 genotypes, exceeding that of the GII.4 pandemic variants; 3) seasonal shifts in the dominant genotypes of both GI and GII.
Department of Biology and Research Institute of Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea.
Man Su
MS
Kim
Department of Biology and Research Institute of Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea.
Eung Seo
ES
Koo
Department of Biology and Research Institute of Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea.
Yong Seon
YS
Choi
Department of Biology and Research Institute of Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea.
Ji Young
JY
Kim
Department of Biology and Research Institute of Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea.
Chang Hoon
CH
Yoo
Department of Seafood Science and Technology, Institute of Marine Industry, Gyeongsang National University, Tongyeong, Gyeongnam, South Korea.
Hyun Jin
HJ
Yoon
Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Ocean Science and Technology, Kunsan National University, Kunsan, South Korea.
Tae-Ok
TO
Kim
Department of Environmental Engineering & Biotechnology, Mokpo National Maritime University, Mokpo, South Korea.
Hyun Bae
HB
Choi
Department of Food Science and Technology, Pukyong National University, Busan, South Korea.
Ji Hoon
JH
Kim
Department of Seafood Science and Technology, Institute of Marine Industry, Gyeongsang National University, Tongyeong, Gyeongnam, South Korea.
Jong Deok
JD
Choi
Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Ocean Science and Technology, Kunsan National University, Kunsan, South Korea.
Kwon-Sam
KS
Park
Department of Environmental Engineering & Biotechnology, Mokpo National Maritime University, Mokpo, South Korea.
Yongsik
Y
Shin
Department of Food Science and Technology, Pukyong National University, Busan, South Korea.
Young-Mog
YM
Kim
Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Graduate School of Public Health, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea.
GwangPyo
G
Ko
Department of Biology and Research Institute of Basic Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea.
Yong Seok
YS
Jeong
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