An update on thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy in children and adolescents.
BACKGROUND
Risk of developing thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy (TAO) in children and adolescents is similar or may be even slightly higher than in adults. The aim of this article is to review and summarize current knowledge regarding diagnostic and therapeutic measures in pediatric TAO.


BACKGROUND
MEDLINE and EMBASE papers were searched using the terms 'pediatric Graves' ophthalmopathy' 'pediatric Graves' orbitopathy', 'thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy in childhood and adolescence' from the year 1970 to December 2015.


CONCLUSIONS
TAO usually accompanies hyperthyreosis in Graves' disease, but may also occur in patients with hypothyreosis due to chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis (Hashimoto's disease) or in euthyroid patients. Current information regarding epidemiology, pathogenesis, symptoms and treatment of TAO in children and adolescents is presented. The course of the disease is usually mild, eye disturbances often regress after restoring euthyroidism and a 'wait and see' policy is appropriate in the majority of patients. In rare cases, sight-threatening complications [dysthyroid optic neuropathy (DON) or corneal breakdown] may develop and immediate surgical intervention might become necessary.


CONCLUSIONS
Close cooperation between pediatric endocrinologists and opthalmologists is extremely important to ensure best care and quality of life in patients with thyroid gland dysfunction. Further investigations on pathogenesis and course of TAO in children and adolescents should be performed for better management of this disease in this group of patients.
Justyna
http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7898-3498
J
Szczapa-Jagustyn
Anna
A
Gotz-Więckowska
Jarosław
J
Kocięcki
D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D002648:Child; D049970:Graves Ophthalmopathy / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000628:therapy*; D006801:Humans