Neuropsychology in Japan: history, current challenges, and future prospects.
OBJECTIVE
The purpose of this special issue was to describe the cross-cultural differences in neuropsychology throughout the world. The current state of neuropsychology in Japan is discussed in this manuscript.


METHODS
Information on six topics, including (1) the history of Japanese neuropsychology, (2) licensure system, (3) job opportunities, (4) neuropsychological clinical services, (5) neuropsychological tests, and (6) neuropsychological research, was gathered via literature searches, official organization websites, and personal communication with clinical psychologists and other professionals in Japan.


RESULTS
Neuropsychology reached Japan from the west in the late 1800s, a period of rapid political and social modernization. Professional associations were founded in the 1960s and 1970s and continued to grow. The need for neuropsychological assessment in Japan is growing; however, credential requirements for neuropsychologists have not yet been established. To practice clinical psychology in Japan, one must obtain a Master's degree and pass a licensure examination that is administered by a private professional foundation. Clinical psychologists often conduct neuropsychological tests; however, they have little training in neuropsychological assessment. While many western neuropsychological tests have been translated into Japanese and are used in clinical settings, the majority of translated tests have not been standardized and their psychometric properties remain poorly understood. Standardization and development of normative data in Japan is warranted.


CONCLUSIONS
Given that needs for neuropsychological services are increasing, it is essential for clinical psychologists in Japan to improve their skills in neuropsychological evaluations. Japanese graduate schools must work to establish neuropsychology programs to educate and train clinical neuropsychologists.
a Faculty of Medicine , Saga University , Saga , Japan.
Maiko
M
Sakamoto
D035843:Biomedical Research / Q000193:education / Q000379:methods / Q000639:trends; D003695:Delivery of Health Care / Q000379:methods / Q000639:trends; D005544:Forecasting; D006801:Humans; D007564:Japan / Q000453:epidemiology; D008007:Licensure, Medical / Q000639:trends*; D009483:Neuropsychological Tests; D009484:Neuropsychology / Q000193:education / Q000379:methods / Q000639:trends*; D011584:Psychology / Q000193:education / Q000379:methods / Q000639:trends*; D011586:Psychology, Clinical / Q000193:education / Q000379:methods / Q000639:trends; D011594:Psychometrics
History of Japanese neuropsychology; education and training for clinical psychologists; neuropsychological research in Japan; neuropsychological tests used in Japan