title: Multiple Insecticide Resistance in the Malaria Vector Anopheles funestus from Northern Cameroon Is Mediated by Metabolic Resistance Alongside Potential Target Site Insensitivity Mutations.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Despite the recent progress in establishing the patterns of insecticide resistance in the major malaria vector Anopheles funestus, Central African populations of this species remain largely uncharacterised. To bridge this important gap and facilitate the implementation of suitable control strategies against this vector, we characterised the resistance patterns of An. funestus population from northern Cameroon.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Collection of indoor-resting female mosquitoes in Gounougou (northern Cameroon) in 2012 and 2015 revealed a predominance of An. funestus during dry season. WHO bioassays performed using F1 An. funestus revealed that the population was multiple resistant to several insecticide classes including pyrethroids (permethrin, deltamethrin, lambda-cyhalothrin and etofenprox), carbamates (bendiocarb) and organochlorines (DDT and dieldrin). However, a full susceptibility was observed against the organophosphate malathion. Bioassays performed with 2015 collection revealed that resistance against pyrethroids and DDT is increasing. PBO synergist assays revealed a significant recovery of susceptibility for all pyrethroids but less for DDT. Analysis of the polymorphism of a portion of the voltage-gated sodium channel gene (VGSC) revealed the absence of the L1014F/S kdr mutation but identified 3 novel amino acid changes I877L, V881L and A1007S. However, no association was established between VGSC polymorphism and pyrethroid/DDT resistance. The DDT resistant 119F-GSTe2 allele (52%) and the dieldrin resistant 296S-RDL allele (45%) were detected in Gounougou. Temporal analysis between 2006, 2012 and 2015 collections revealed that the 119F-GSTe2 allele was relatively stable whereas a significant decrease is observed for 296S-RDL allele.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This multiple resistance coupled with the temporal increased in resistance intensity highlights the need to take urgent measures to prolong the efficacy of current insecticide-based interventions against An. funestus in this African region.
authors.affiliation: Vector Biology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, Merseyside, United Kingdom.|LSTM/OCEAC Research Unit. Organisation de Coordination pour la lutte contre les Endémies en Afrique Centrale, Yaoundé, Centre Region, Cameroon.
authors.forename: Benjamin D
authors.initials: BD
authors.lastname: Menze
authors.affiliation: Vector Biology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, Merseyside, United Kingdom.|LSTM/OCEAC Research Unit. Organisation de Coordination pour la lutte contre les Endémies en Afrique Centrale, Yaoundé, Centre Region, Cameroon.
authors.forename: Jacob M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Riveron
authors.affiliation: Vector Biology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, Merseyside, United Kingdom.|Biochemistry Department, Bayero University Kano, Kano, Kano State, Nigeria.
authors.forename: Sulaiman S
authors.initials: SS
authors.lastname: Ibrahim
authors.affiliation: Vector Biology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, Merseyside, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Helen
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Irving
authors.affiliation: LSTM/OCEAC Research Unit. Organisation de Coordination pour la lutte contre les Endémies en Afrique Centrale, Yaoundé, Centre Region, Cameroon.
authors.forename: Christophe
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Antonio-Nkondjio
authors.affiliation: LSTM/OCEAC Research Unit. Organisation de Coordination pour la lutte contre les Endémies en Afrique Centrale, Yaoundé, Centre Region, Cameroon.
authors.forename: Parfait H
authors.initials: PH
authors.lastname: Awono-Ambene
authors.affiliation: Vector Biology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, Merseyside, United Kingdom.|LSTM/OCEAC Research Unit. Organisation de Coordination pour la lutte contre les Endémies en Afrique Centrale, Yaoundé, Centre Region, Cameroon.
authors.forename: Charles S
authors.initials: CS
authors.lastname: Wondji
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000852:Anopheles / Q000235:genetics* / Q000469:parasitology; D002163:Cameroon; D018432:Drug Resistance, Multiple / Q000235:genetics*; D005260:Female; D019476:Insect Proteins / Q000235:genetics*; D007305:Insecticide Resistance / Q000235:genetics*; D007306:Insecticides / Q000494:pharmacology*; D008288:Malaria; D000072138:Mosquito Vectors; D009154:Mutation; D015222:Sodium Channels / Q000235:genetics*
chemical_list: D019476:Insect Proteins; D007306:Insecticides; D015222:Sodium Channels