title: Aluminum-Cycle Ion Exchange Process for Hardness Removal: A New Approach for Sustainable Softening.
abstract: From a sustainability viewpoint, sodium exchange softening, although used widely, is under scrutiny due to its production of excess Na-laden spent regenerant and subsequent discharge to the environment. Many arid regions are introducing regulations disallowing dumping of concentrated sodium salts, the residuals from popular Na-exchange softening. The sodium content of the softened water is, also, always higher than in the feed, which poses a dietary health concern when used for drinking or cooking. An efficient, easy-to-operate hardness removal process with reduced sodium in both the treated water and in the spent regenerant is an unmet global need. Use of a cation exchange resin in Al3+-form for hardness removal, that is, exchange of divalent Ca2+or Mg2+with trivalent Al3+, is counterintuitive, and this is particularly so, because the aluminum ion to be exchanged has higher affinity than calcium. Nevertheless, ion exchange accompanied by precipitation of aluminum hydroxide allows progress of the cation exchange reaction leading to hardness removal. Experimental results demonstrated that calcium can be consistently removed for multiple cycles using a stoichiometric amount of AlCl3as the regenerant. The process essentially operates at the maximum possible thermodynamic efficiency: removal of one equivalent of Ca2+corresponds to use of one equivalent of Al3+as a regenerant. During the Al-cycle process there is no increase in Na+concentration and partial reduction in the total dissolved solids (TDS) of the treated water. It is noteworthy that the ion-exchange resin used, components of the fixed-bed column and operational protocol are nearly the same as traditional softening processes on Na-cycle. Thus, existing Na-cycle systems can be retrofitted into Al-cycle operation without major difficulty.
authors.affiliation: Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Lehigh University , Bethlehem, Pennsylvania 18015, United States.
authors.forename: Jinze
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Li
authors.affiliation: Jalpaiguri Govt. Engineering College , Civil Engineering Department, Jalpaiguri 735102, India.
authors.forename: Suman
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Koner
authors.affiliation: Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Lehigh University , Bethlehem, Pennsylvania 18015, United States.
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: German
authors.affiliation: Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Lehigh University , Bethlehem, Pennsylvania 18015, United States.
authors.forename: Arup K
authors.initials: AK
authors.lastname: SenGupta
mesh_terms: D000535:Aluminum; D006244:Hardness; D007474:Ion Exchange; D007475:Ion Exchange Resins; D018508:Water Purification
chemical_list: D007475:Ion Exchange Resins; D000535:Aluminum