title: Positive vs. Negative: The Impact of Question Polarity in Voting Advice Applications.
abstract: Online Voting Advice Applications (VAAs) are survey-like instruments that help citizens to shape their political preferences and compare them with those of political parties. Especially in multi-party democracies, their increasing popularity indicates that VAAs play an important role in opinion formation for citizens, as well as in the public debate prior to elections. Hence, the objectivity and transparency of VAAs are crucial. In the design of VAAs, many choices have to be made. Extant research in survey methodology shows that the seemingly arbitrary choice to word questions positively (e.g., 'The city council should allow cars into the city centre') or negatively ('The city council should ban cars from the city centre') systematically affects the answers. This asymmetry in answers is in line with work on negativity bias in other areas of linguistics and psychology. Building on these findings, this study investigated whether question polarity also affects the answers to VAA statements. In a field experiment (N = 31,112) during the Dutch municipal elections we analysed the effects of polarity for 16 out of 30 VAA statements with a large variety of linguistic contrasts. Analyses show a significant effect of question wording for questions containing a wide range of implicit negations (such as 'forbid' vs. 'allow'), as well as for questions with explicit negations (e.g., 'not'). These effects of question polarity are found especially for VAA users with lower levels of political sophistication. As these citizens are an important target group for Voting Advice Applications, this stresses the need for VAA builders to be sensitive to wording choices when designing VAAs. This study is the first to show such consistent wording effects not only for political attitude questions with implicit negations in VAAs, but also for political questions containing explicit negations.
authors.affiliation: Uil-OTS, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Bregje
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Holleman
authors.affiliation: Uil-OTS, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.|TiCC, Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Naomi
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Kamoen
authors.affiliation: Social-Cultural Sciences, Free University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.|Kieskompas bv., Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: André
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Krouwel
authors.affiliation: ASCoR, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Jasper van de
authors.initials: JV
authors.lastname: Pol
authors.affiliation: ASCoR, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Claes de
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Vreese
mesh_terms: D001290:Attitude; D006801:Humans; D020407:Internet; D008037:Linguistics; D011057:Politics; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires