title: Etiology and Prevention of Esophageal Cancer.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Esophageal cancer (EC) occurs commonly, especially in Asia, and is the sixth leading cause of cancer deaths worldwide. Recently, great progress has been made in research on the etiology and prevention of EC.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The major risk factors for esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) are tobacco smoking and alcohol drinking, which act synergistically. Dietary parameters, including dietary carcinogens and insufficiency of micronutrients, could also be important risk factors in certain areas. A common etiological factor for both EC and some other cancers are low levels of intake of fruits and vegetables. With improvements in diet and drinking water in developing countries, the incidence of ESCC decreased. However, in economically well-developed countries, the incidence of esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC) has markedly increased in the past 40 years. The major etiological factor for EAC is gastroesophageal reflux, which is also an etiological factor for gastric cardia adenocarcinoma (GCA). In certain areas of China, the occurrence of GCA is closely related to ESCC. Susceptibility genes for EC are starting to be discovered, and this may help to identify high-risk groups that have more need for preventive measures. Mitigation of the risk factors, early detection and treatment of precancerous lesions are effective approaches for prevention. Smoking cessation, avoidance of excessive alcohol, meat and caloric consumption, increasing physical activity and frequent consumption of vegetables and fruits are prudent lifestyle modifications for the prevention of EC as well as other diseases.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The etiology of EC includes tobacco smoking, alcohol drinking, low levels of intake of fruits and vegetables as well as gastroesophageal reflux and susceptibility genes.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  A healthy lifestyle including smoking cessation, increasing physical activity, consumption of vegetables as well as reduction of alcohol intake and caloric consumption are major approaches to the prevention of EC.
authors.affiliation: Department of Chemical Biology, Susan Lehman Cullman Laboratory for Cancer Research, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, N.J, USA.
authors.forename: Chung S
authors.initials: CS
authors.lastname: Yang
authors.affiliation: Julius L. Chambers Biomedical/Biotechnology Research Institute, North Carolina Central University, Durham, N.C, USA; Center for Esophageal Diseases and Swallowing, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, N.C., USA.
authors.forename: Xiaoxin
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Chen
authors.affiliation: Department of Oncology, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, PR China.
authors.forename: Shuiping
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Tu
keywords: Esophageal cancer; Etiology; Prevention