title: Refractory and Resistant Hypertension: Antihypertensive Treatment Failure versus Treatment Resistance.
abstract: Resistant hypertension has for many decades been defined as difficult-to-treat hypertension in order to identify patients who may benefit from special diagnostic and/or therapeutic considerations. Recently, the term "refractory hypertension" has been proposed as a novel phenotype of antihypertensive failure, that is, patients whose blood pressure cannot be controlled with maximal treatment. Early studies of this phenotype indicate that it is uncommon, affecting less than 5% of patients with resistant hypertension. Risk factors for refractory hypertension include obesity, diabetes, chronic kidney disease, and especially, being of African origin. Patients with refractory are at high cardiovascular risk based on increased rates of known heart disease, prior stroke, and prior episodes of congestive heart failure. Mechanisms of refractory hypertension need exploration, but early studies suggest a possible role of heightened sympathetic tone as evidenced by increased office and ambulatory heart rates and higher urinary excretion of norepinephrine compared to patients with controlled resistant hypertension. Important negative findings argue against refractory hypertension being fluid dependent as is typical of resistant hypertension, including aldosterone levels, dietary sodium intake, and brain natriuretic peptide levels being similar or even less than patients with resistant hypertension and the failure to control blood pressure with use of intensive diuretic therapy, including both a long-acting thiazide diuretic and a mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist. Further studies, especially longitudinal assessments, are needed to better characterize this extreme phenotype in terms of risk factors and outcomes and hopefully to identify effective treatment strategies.
authors.affiliation: Vascular Biology and Hypertension Program, University of Alabama at Birmingham, AL, USA.
authors.forename: David A
authors.initials: DA
authors.lastname: Calhoun
keywords: Refractory hypertension; Resistant hypertension; Spironolactone; Sympathetic nervous system