title: Land-use choices follow profitability at the expense of ecological functions in Indonesian smallholder landscapes.
abstract: Smallholder-dominated agricultural mosaic landscapes are highlighted as model production systems that deliver both economic and ecological goods in tropical agricultural landscapes, but trade-offs underlying current land-use dynamics are poorly known. Here, using the most comprehensive quantification of land-use change and associated bundles of ecosystem functions, services and economic benefits to date, we show that Indonesian smallholders predominantly choose farm portfolios with high economic productivity but low ecological value. The more profitable oil palm and rubber monocultures replace forests and agroforests critical for maintaining above- and below-ground ecological functions and the diversity of most taxa. Between the monocultures, the higher economic performance of oil palm over rubber comes with the reliance on fertilizer inputs and with increased nutrient leaching losses. Strategies to achieve an ecological-economic balance and a sustainable management of tropical smallholder landscapes must be prioritized to avoid further environmental degradation.
authors.affiliation: Centre for Environmental and Climate Research, Lund University, Sölvegatan 37, 22362 Lund, Sweden.|Department of Crop Sciences, Agroecology, Georg August University Göttingen, Grisebachstr. 6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Yann
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Clough
authors.affiliation: Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Development, Georg August University Göttingen, Platz der Göttinger Sieben 5, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Vijesh V
authors.initials: VV
authors.lastname: Krishna
authors.affiliation: Soil Science of Tropical and Subtropical Ecosystems, Büsgen Institute, Georg August University Göttingen, Büsgenweg 2, 37077 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Marife D
authors.initials: MD
authors.lastname: Corre
authors.affiliation: Department of Crop Sciences, Agroecology, Georg August University Göttingen, Grisebachstr. 6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Kevin
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Darras
authors.affiliation: Department of Crop Sciences, Agroecology, Georg August University Göttingen, Grisebachstr. 6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Lisa H
authors.initials: LH
authors.lastname: Denmead
authors.affiliation: Bioclimatology, Georg August University Göttingen, Büsgenweg 2, 37077 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Ana
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Meijide
authors.affiliation: Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Development, Georg August University Göttingen, Platz der Göttinger Sieben 5, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Stefan
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Moser
authors.affiliation: Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Development, Georg August University Göttingen, Platz der Göttinger Sieben 5, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Oliver
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Musshoff
authors.affiliation: Institute of Social and Cultural Anthropology, Georg August University Göttingen, Theaterplatz 15, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Stefanie
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Steinebach
authors.affiliation: Soil Science of Tropical and Subtropical Ecosystems, Büsgen Institute, Georg August University Göttingen, Büsgenweg 2, 37077 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Edzo
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Veldkamp
authors.affiliation: Soil Science of Tropical and Subtropical Ecosystems, Büsgen Institute, Georg August University Göttingen, Büsgenweg 2, 37077 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Kara
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Allen
authors.affiliation: Systemic Conservation Biology, Georg August University Göttingen, Berliner Str. 28, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.|German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Deutscher Platz 5e, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
authors.forename: Andrew D
authors.identifier: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6499-381X
authors.initials: AD
authors.lastname: Barnes
authors.affiliation: Forest Genetics and Forest Tree Breeding, Büsgen Institute, Georg August University Göttingen, Büsgenweg 2, 37077 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Natalie
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Breidenbach
authors.affiliation: Systemic Conservation Biology, Georg August University Göttingen, Berliner Str. 28, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.|German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Deutscher Platz 5e, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.|Institute of Ecology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Dornburger-Str. 159, Jena 07743, Germany.
authors.forename: Ulrich
authors.initials: U
authors.lastname: Brose
authors.affiliation: Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Bogor Agricultural University Jalan Kamper Kampus IPB Darmaga, Bogor 16680, Indonesia.
authors.forename: Damayanti
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Buchori
authors.affiliation: Department of Genomic and Applied Microbiology and Göttingen Genomics Laboratory, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Georg August University Göttingen, Grisebachstr. 8, 37077 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Rolf
authors.identifier: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8646-7925
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Daniel
authors.affiliation: Forest Genetics and Forest Tree Breeding, Büsgen Institute, Georg August University Göttingen, Büsgenweg 2, 37077 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Reiner
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Finkeldey
authors.affiliation: Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Bogor Agricultural University Jalan Kamper Kampus IPB Darmaga, Bogor 16680, Indonesia.
authors.forename: Idham
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Harahap
authors.affiliation: Department of Plant Ecology and Ecosystems Research, Georg August University Göttingen, Untere Karspüle 2, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Dietrich
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Hertel
authors.affiliation: Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Development, Georg August University Göttingen, Platz der Göttinger Sieben 5, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: A Mareike
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Holtkamp
authors.affiliation: Department of Systematics, Biodiversity and Evolution of Plants, Georg August University Göttingen, Untere Karspüle 2, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Elvira
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Hörandl
authors.affiliation: Forestry Faculty, University of Jambi, Campus Pinang Masak Mendalo, Jambi 36361, Indonesia.
authors.forename: Bambang
authors.initials: B
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authors.affiliation: Forest Resources Inventory and Remote Sensing, Bogor Agricultural University, Kampus IPB Darmaga, Bogor 16680, Indonesia.
authors.forename: I Nengah Surati
authors.initials: INS
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authors.affiliation: Systemic Conservation Biology, Georg August University Göttingen, Berliner Str. 28, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Malte
authors.identifier: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8728-1145
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Jochum
authors.affiliation: JF Blumenbach Institute of Zoology and Anthropology, Animal Ecology, Georg August University Göttingen, Berliner Str. 28, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Bernhard
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Klarner
authors.affiliation: Bioclimatology, Georg August University Göttingen, Büsgenweg 2, 37077 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Alexander
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Knohl
authors.affiliation: Department of Plant Ecology and Ecosystems Research, Georg August University Göttingen, Untere Karspüle 2, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Martyna M
authors.initials: MM
authors.lastname: Kotowska
authors.affiliation: JF Blumenbach Institute of Zoology and Anthropology, Animal Ecology, Georg August University Göttingen, Berliner Str. 28, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Valentyna
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Krashevska
authors.affiliation: Biodiversity, Macroecology &Conservation Biogeography, Georg August University Göttingen, Büsgenweg 1, 37077 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Holger
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Kreft
authors.affiliation: Soil Science of Tropical and Subtropical Ecosystems, Büsgen Institute, Georg August University Göttingen, Büsgenweg 2, 37077 Göttingen, Germany.|Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Brawijaya University. Jl. Veteran 56 Malang, East Java, 65145, Indonesia.
authors.forename: Syahrul
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Kurniawan
authors.affiliation: Department of Plant Ecology and Ecosystems Research, Georg August University Göttingen, Untere Karspüle 2, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
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authors.initials: C
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authors.affiliation: JF Blumenbach Institute of Zoology and Anthropology, Animal Ecology, Georg August University Göttingen, Berliner Str. 28, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Mark
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Maraun
authors.affiliation: Forest Inventory and Remote Sensing, Burckhardt Institute, Georg August University Göttingen, Büsgenweg 5, 37077 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Dian Nuraini
authors.initials: DN
authors.lastname: Melati
authors.affiliation: Department of Systematics, Biodiversity and Evolution of Plants, Georg August University Göttingen, Untere Karspüle 2, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Nicole
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authors.affiliation: Forest Inventory and Remote Sensing, Burckhardt Institute, Georg August University Göttingen, Büsgenweg 5, 37077 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: César
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Pérez-Cruzado
authors.affiliation: Conservation Biology Division, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 6, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Walesa Edho
authors.initials: WE
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authors.affiliation: Forest Inventory and Remote Sensing, Burckhardt Institute, Georg August University Göttingen, Büsgenweg 5, 37077 Göttingen, Germany.
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authors.affiliation: Department of Plant Pests and Diseases, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Brawijaya. Jl. Veteran Malang, East Java 65145, Indonesia.
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authors.identifier: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6673-6198
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authors.affiliation: Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Bogor Agricultural University Jalan Kamper Kampus IPB Darmaga, Bogor 16680, Indonesia.
authors.forename: Ratna
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authors.affiliation: Department of Genomic and Applied Microbiology and Göttingen Genomics Laboratory, Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Georg August University Göttingen, Grisebachstr. 8, 37077 Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Dominik
authors.initials: D
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authors.affiliation: SEAMEO BIOTROP Regional Center for Tropical Biology, Jl. Raya Tajur km 6, Bogor 16134, Indonesia.
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authors.affiliation: Faculty of Agriculture, Tadulako University, Jl. Soekarno Hatta km 09 Tondo, Palu 94118, Indonesia.
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authors.initials: A
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authors.affiliation: Department of Crop Sciences, Agroecology, Georg August University Göttingen, Grisebachstr. 6, 37077 Göttingen, Germany.
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authors.affiliation: JF Blumenbach Institute of Zoology and Anthropology, Animal Ecology, Georg August University Göttingen, Berliner Str. 28, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
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