title: Low dose extended exposure to saxitoxin and its potential neurodevelopmental effects: A review.
abstract: Saxitoxin (STX) and its analogs, the paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), are a group of potent neurotoxins well known for their role in acute paralytic poisoning by preventing the generation of action potentials in neuronal cells. They are found in both marine and freshwater environments globally and although acute exposure from the former has previously received more attention, low dose extended exposure from both sources is possible and to date has not been investigated. Given the known role of cellular electrical activity in neurodevelopment this pattern of exposure may be a significant public health concern. Additionally, the presence of PSTs is likely to be an ongoing and possibly increasing problem in the future. This review examines the neurodevelopmental toxicity of STX, the risk of extended or repeated exposure to doses with neurodevelopmental effects, the potential implications of this exposure and briefly, the steps taken and difficulties faced in preventing exposure.
authors.affiliation: Discipline of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, The University of Adelaide, Level 3 Medical School South, Frome Rd, Adelaide, 5005, South Australia, Australia. Electronic address: katie.oneill@adelaide.edu.au.
authors.forename: Katie
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: O'Neill
authors.affiliation: Discipline of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, The University of Adelaide, Level 3 Medical School South, Frome Rd, Adelaide, 5005, South Australia, Australia. Electronic address: ian.musgrave@adelaide.edu.au.
authors.forename: Ian F
authors.initials: IF
authors.lastname: Musgrave
authors.affiliation: Australian Water Quality Center, SA Water House, 250 Victoria Square, Adelaide, 5000, South Australia, Australia. Electronic address: Andrew.Humpage@sawater.com.au.
authors.forename: Andrew
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Humpage
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D057231:Climate Change; D000458:Cyanobacteria / Q000235:genetics / Q000254:growth & development; D004141:Dinoflagellida / Q000235:genetics / Q000254:growth & development; D004305:Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; D004781:Environmental Exposure / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000032:analysis; D005618:Fresh Water / Q000737:chemistry; D006801:Humans; D007473:Ion Channels / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors; D015394:Molecular Structure; D020258:Neurotoxicity Syndromes / Q000209:etiology* / Q000378:metabolism; D012530:Saxitoxin / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000032:analysis / Q000737:chemistry / Q000633:toxicity*; D012623:Seawater / Q000737:chemistry; D057096:Shellfish Poisoning / Q000150:complications*; D013997:Time Factors; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000032:analysis / Q000737:chemistry / Q000633:toxicity*
chemical_list: D007473:Ion Channels; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical; D012530:Saxitoxin
keywords: Drinking water; Neurodevelopment; Saxitoxin; Seafood; Voltage gated sodium channel