title: Pharmaceuticals and Stem Cells in Autism Spectrum Disorders: Wishful Thinking?
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  We provide a contemporary account of the key pathologic events pertaining to autism: the theory of oxidative stress and inflammatory causes, ideas of immune dysfunction, the probable biomarkers that can be used for diagnostics, and the use of pharmaceuticals and stem cells as possible candidates for the treatment of autism spectrum disorders (ASDs).
  
  
  METHODS
  ASDs are a group of complex neurodevelopmental conditions characterized by abnormal patterns of attention and impaired social and communication skills. ASDs are also associated with numerous functional challenges and potentially harmful deficits, including restricted and repetitive behaviors, anxiety, irritability, seizures, and self-harm.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Although the exact causes of ASDs are unknown, it is suggested that genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors play critical roles. More recent findings support evidence for synaptic defects and impairments in brain information processing that are linked to social and perceptual skills.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Owing to the clinical heterogeneity and lack of precise diagnostic tools, current therapeutic approaches aimed at managing ASD-associated conditions are not definitive.
authors.affiliation: Biomaterials and Advanced Drug Delivery Laboratory, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA.
authors.forename: Senthilkumar
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Sivanesan
authors.affiliation: Biomaterials and Advanced Drug Delivery Laboratory, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA; UCL Medical School, University College London, London, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Aaron
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Tan
authors.affiliation: UCL Medical School, University College London, London, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Rebecca
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Jeyaraj
authors.affiliation: UCL Medical School, University College London, London, United Kingdom; Queens' College, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: James
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Lam
authors.affiliation: Biomaterials and Advanced Drug Delivery Laboratory, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA.
authors.forename: Monica
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Gole
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA.
authors.forename: Antonio
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Hardan
authors.affiliation: Department of Neurosurgery, King's College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, King's College London, London, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Keyoumars
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Ashkan
authors.affiliation: Biomaterials and Advanced Drug Delivery Laboratory, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA; Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA. Electronic address: jayraja@stanford.edu.
authors.forename: Jayakumar
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Rajadas
mesh_terms: D000067877:Autism Spectrum Disorder / Q000209:etiology / Q000628:therapy*; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000378:metabolism; D002648:Child; D044127:Epigenesis, Genetic / Q000235:genetics; D005260:Female; D005544:Forecasting; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D053758:Nanoparticles / Q000627:therapeutic use; D012307:Risk Factors; D033581:Stem Cell Transplantation / Q000379:methods / Q000639:trends
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers
keywords: Autism; Autism spectrum disorders; Epigenetics; Nanoparticles; Neuroscience; Stem cells