title: Craniofacial features as assessed by lateral cephalometric measurements in children with Down syndrome.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The objective of the present study is to examine the craniofacial development of patients with Down syndrome (DS) and compare them with a neurotypical population.
  
  
  METHODS
  This study is a cross-sectional analysis of lateral cephalometric radiographs of participants with DS. The study population consisted of children and young adults with DS aged 3-25 years. Cephalometric data were summarized by age and sex. Raw and normalized z-scores were computed. One-sample t tests were used to test whether mean z-scores differed from zero. The demographic characteristics between those with or without lateral cephalograms among all study participants were compared by Fisher's exact tests.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The study sample comprised of 27 participants with DS. Study subjects demonstrated a class III skeletal pattern. This was more pronounced in the older age groups as compared to younger age groups. Subjects also had an increased proportionate lower anterior face height to total facial height compared to normative standards. Gonial angles, mandibular plane angles, and airway measurements increased with age.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Patients with Down syndrome present typically with class III skeletal pattern and long lower anterior facial heights. In patients with Down syndrome, comprehensive phase of orthodontic treatment may be best initiated following cessation of growth.
authors.affiliation: Department of Orthodontics, College of Dentistry and Dental Clinics, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA. sathpurush@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Veerasathpurush
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Allareddy
authors.affiliation: Children's Dentistry, El Cerrito, CA, USA.
authors.forename: Nicholas
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Ching
authors.affiliation: Biostatistics Center, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
authors.forename: Eric A
authors.initials: EA
authors.lastname: Macklin
authors.affiliation: Department of Medicine, Down Syndrome Program, Division of Developmental Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.
authors.forename: Lauren
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Voelz
authors.affiliation: David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
authors.forename: Gil
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Weintraub
authors.affiliation: Department of Medicine, Down Syndrome Program, Division of Developmental Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.|Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
authors.forename: Emily
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Davidson
authors.affiliation: Department of Medicine, Down Syndrome Program, Division of Developmental Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.|Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
authors.forename: Lisa Albers
authors.initials: LA
authors.lastname: Prock
authors.affiliation: Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.|Department of Medicine, Division of Respiratory Diseases, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.
authors.forename: Dennis
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Rosen
authors.affiliation: Department of Dentistry, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.
authors.forename: Richard
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Brunn
authors.affiliation: Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.|Department of Pediatrics, Down Syndrome Program, Division of Medical Genetics, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.
authors.forename: Brian G
authors.initials: BG
authors.lastname: Skotko
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000367:Age Factors; D059925:Anatomic Landmarks / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000293:injuries; D002508:Cephalometry / Q000379:methods*; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D004314:Down Syndrome / Q000150:complications*; D005145:Face / Q000033:anatomy & histology* / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008310:Malocclusion / Q000473:pathology; D008334:Mandible / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging; D011861:Radiography, Dental; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012737:Sex Factors; D012886:Skull / Q000033:anatomy & histology* / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging*; D055815:Young Adult