title: Virological Quality of Irrigation Water in Leafy Green Vegetables and Berry Fruits Production Chains.
abstract: This study condenses data acquired during investigations of the virological quality of irrigation water used in production of fresh produce. One hundred and eight samples of irrigation water were collected from five berry fruit farms in Finland (1), the Czech Republic (1), Serbia (2), and Poland (1), and sixty-one samples were collected from three leafy green vegetable farms in Poland, Serbia, and Greece. Samples were analyzed for index viruses of human or animal fecal contamination (human and porcine adenoviruses, and bovine polyoma viruses), and human pathogenic viruses (hepatitis A virus, hepatitis E virus, and noroviruses GI/GII). Both index and pathogenic viruses were found in irrigation water samples from the leafy green vegetables production chain. The data on the presence of index viruses indicated that the highest percentage of fecal contamination was of human origin (28.1 %, 18/64), followed by that of porcine (15.4 %, 6/39) and bovine (5.1 %, 2/39) origins. Hepatitis E virus (5 %, 1/20) and noroviruses GII (14.3 %, 4/28) were also detected. Samples from berry fruit production were also positive for both index and pathogenic viruses. The highest percentage of fecal contamination was of human origin (8.3 %, 9/108), followed by that of porcine, 4.5 % (4/89) and bovine, 1.1 % (1/89) origins. Norovirus GII (3.6 %, 2/56) was also detected. These data demonstrate that irrigation water used in primary production is an important vehicle of viral contamination for fresh produce, and thus is a critical control point which should be integrated into food safety management systems for viruses. The recommendations of Codex Alimentarius, as well as regulations on the use of water of appropriate quality for irrigation purposes, should be followed.
authors.affiliation: Environmental Microbiology Unit, Department of Public Health, University of Patras, University Campus, 26500, Patras, Greece.
authors.forename: P
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Kokkinos
authors.affiliation: National Veterinary Research Institute, Al. Partyzantów 57, 24-100, Puławy, Poland.
authors.forename: I
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Kozyra
authors.affiliation: Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad", Rumenacki put 20, 21000, Novi Sad, Serbia.
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Lazic
authors.affiliation: Department of Food Hygiene and Environmental Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 66, 00014, Helsinki, Finland.
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Söderberg
authors.affiliation: Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, 721 00, Brno, Czech Republic.
authors.forename: P
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Vasickova
authors.affiliation: National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, RIVM, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Bouwknegt
authors.affiliation: National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, RIVM, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Rutjes
authors.affiliation: Laboratory for Process Microbial Ecology and Bioinspirational Management, Consortium for Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.|Scientia Terrae Research Institute, Sint-Katelijne-Waver, Belgium.
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Willems
authors.affiliation: Environmental Health Service, Health Service Executive, Sandfield Centre, Ennis, Co., Clare, Ireland.
authors.forename: R
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Moloney
authors.affiliation: National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, RIVM, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: A M
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: de Roda Husman
authors.affiliation: National Veterinary Research Institute, Al. Partyzantów 57, 24-100, Puławy, Poland.
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Kaupke
authors.affiliation: Environmental Microbiology Unit, Department of Public Health, University of Patras, University Campus, 26500, Patras, Greece.
authors.forename: E
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Legaki
authors.affiliation: Food and Environment Research Agency (FERA), Sand Hutton, York, UK.
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: D'Agostino
authors.affiliation: Food and Environment Research Agency (FERA), Sand Hutton, York, UK.
authors.forename: N
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Cook
authors.affiliation: Department of Food Hygiene and Environmental Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 66, 00014, Helsinki, Finland.
authors.forename: C-H
authors.initials: CH
authors.lastname: von Bonsdorff
authors.affiliation: National Veterinary Research Institute, Al. Partyzantów 57, 24-100, Puławy, Poland. arzez@piwet.pulawy.pl.
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Rzeżutka
authors.affiliation: Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad", Rumenacki put 20, 21000, Novi Sad, Serbia. tomy@niv.ns.ac.rs.
authors.forename: T
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Petrovic
authors.affiliation: Department of Food Hygiene and Environmental Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 66, 00014, Helsinki, Finland. leena.maunula@helsinki.fi.
authors.forename: L
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Maunula
authors.affiliation: Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, 721 00, Brno, Czech Republic. pavlik@vri.cz.
authors.forename: I
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Pavlik
authors.affiliation: Environmental Microbiology Unit, Department of Public Health, University of Patras, University Campus, 26500, Patras, Greece. avantar@med.upatras.gr.
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Vantarakis
mesh_terms: D057914:Agricultural Irrigation; D005060:Europe; D005506:Food Contamination / Q000032:analysis*; D005618:Fresh Water / Q000737:chemistry / Q000821:virology*; D005638:Fruit / Q000254:growth & development / Q000821:virology*; D018515:Plant Leaves / Q000254:growth & development / Q000821:virology*; D014675:Vegetables / Q000254:growth & development / Q000821:virology*; D014780:Viruses / Q000145:classification / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification*
keywords: Food safety; Irrigation water; Molecular detection; Produce; Virological quality