title: Cardiac Biomarkers: Invasive to Non-invasive Assessments.
abstract: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a major threat to global health, estimated to be the cause 30 % (17.3 million in 2008) of deaths every year, and the number of deaths caused by CVD is expected to increase further, reaching 23.3 million by 2030. Hence, there is a growing demand for simpler sample extraction, rapid screening results, and intervention of the subsequent analysis in emergency units. In this paper, we reviewed CVD biomarkers in blood- and saliva-based specimens. The history of cardiac biomarkers indicates that in the beginning, cardiac troponin I (cTnI) was a widely accepted 'gold standard' marker due to its high specificity and selectivity. Considering the advantages of salivary-based cardiac biomarkers, we examined correlations between non-invasive (salivary) and invasive (blood) diagnoses, and it was found that C-reactive protein (CRP) provides a better correlation. Despite the low abundance of salivary CRP, several reports displayed the detection limit down to pg/ml using existing technologies. Thus, salivary CRP has the potential to be used for future forefront diagnostics for the early assessment of cardiac risks.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Nano Electronic Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, 01000 Kangar, Perlis, Malaysia.
authors.forename: Mohd Khairuddin Md
authors.initials: MK
authors.lastname: Arshad
authors.forename: Mohamad Faris
authors.initials: MF
authors.lastname: Bin Mohamad Fathil
authors.forename: Subash C B
authors.initials: SC
authors.lastname: Gopinath
authors.forename: A Rahim
authors.initials: AR
authors.lastname: Ruslinda
authors.forename: Mohammad Nuzaihan
authors.initials: MN
authors.lastname: Md Nor
authors.forename: Hong Yoong
authors.initials: HY
authors.lastname: Lam
authors.forename: Uda
authors.initials: U
authors.lastname: Hashim
mesh_terms: D001219:Aspartate Aminotransferases / Q000097:blood; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000032:analysis* / Q000097:blood; D002097:C-Reactive Protein / Q000032:analysis; D002318:Cardiovascular Diseases / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000378:metabolism; D003402:Creatine Kinase / Q000097:blood; D006801:Humans; D009203:Myocardial Infarction / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000378:metabolism; D009211:Myoglobin / Q000032:analysis; D012463:Saliva / Q000378:metabolism; D019210:Troponin I / Q000097:blood
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D009211:Myoglobin; D019210:Troponin I; D002097:C-Reactive Protein; D001219:Aspartate Aminotransferases; D003402:Creatine Kinase