title: Stress Fractures: Concepts and Therapeutics.
abstract: Stress fractures are repetitive use injuries in which recurrent strains lead to material fatigue and microarchitectural discontinuities. They account for up to 20% of athletic injuries, more often in women and in the setting of track-and-field events. In women, menstrual disturbances, low body mass index, low energy intake, and sometimes low bone mass, may be contributing factors. There are no standard protocols for evaluation or management of stress fractures.
  
  
  
  Available literature published in English was retrieved using the following terms: stress fractures; fractures; osteoporosis, athletes, premenopausal women, and athletic triad; through PubMed. Reviews, original reports, and case reports were all included.
  
  
  
  Despite lack of consistency among the publications, a phenotype emerges, namely of individuals whose bone mineral density is reduced along with low intake of dietary calcium and low circulating levels of 25-hydroxy vitamin D. Limited experience suggests that calcium and vitamin D supplementation might be helpful. Bisphosphonates or teriparatide may accelerate fracture healing in special circumstances.
  
  
  
  Most individuals who experience a stress fracture are young and healthy and do not appear to have an underlying metabolic bone disease. On the other hand, the presence of low bone mass and hormonal disturbances in some afflicted individuals might identify a cohort who needs endocrinological attention. Prospective, well-designed studies of stress fractures are needed to elucidate further underlying pathophysiological elements that predispose such individuals. Guidelines for prevention and treatment may follow from such well-controlled studies.
authors.affiliation: Division of Endocrinology and Internal Medicine of Federal University of Parana Laboratory Renal and Bone Pathology, Division of Bone Histomorphometry, Pro Renal Foundation, 80030-110 Curitiba, Parana, Brazil; and.
authors.forename: Carolina A
authors.initials: CA
authors.lastname: Moreira
authors.affiliation: Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032.
authors.forename: John P
authors.initials: JP
authors.lastname: Bilezikian
mesh_terms: D015775:Fractures, Stress / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000378:metabolism*; D006801:Humans