title: Nitrate and Nitrogen Oxides: Sources, Health Effects and Their Remediation.
abstract: Increased use of nitrogenous (N) fertilizers in agriculture has significantly altered the global N-cycle because they release nitrogenous gases of environmental concerns. The emission of nitrous oxide (N2O) contributes to the global greenhouse gas accumulation and the stratospheric ozone depletion. In addition, it causes nitrate leaching problem deteriorating ground water quality. The nitrate toxicity has been reported in a number of studies showing the health hazards like methemoglobinemia in infants and is a potent cause of cancer. Despite these evident negative environmental as well as health impacts, consumption of N fertilizer cannot be reduced in view of the food security for the teeming growing world population. Various agronomic and genetic modifications have been practiced to tackle this problem. Some agronomic techniques adopted include split application of N, use of slow-release fertilizers, nitrification inhibitors and encouraging the use of organic manure over chemical fertilizers. As a matter of fact, the use of chemical means to remediate nitrate from the environment is very difficult and costly. Particularly, removal of nitrate from water is difficult task because it is chemically non-reactive in dilute aqueous solutions. Hence, the use of biological means for nitrate remediation offers a promising strategy to minimize the ill effects of nitrates and nitrites. One of the important goals to reduce N-fertilizer application can be effectively achieved by choosing N-efficient genotypes. This will ensure the optimum uptake of applied N in a balanced manner and exploring the molecular mechanisms for their uptake as well as metabolism in assimilatory pathways. The objectives of this paper are to evaluate the interrelations which exist in the terrestrial ecosystems between the plant type and characteristics of nutrient uptake and analyze the global consumption and demand for fertilizer nitrogen in relation to cereal production, evaluate the various methods used to determine nitrogen use efficincy (NUE), determine NUE for the major cereals grown across large agroclimatic regions, determine the key factors that control NUE, and finally analyze various strategies available to improve the use efficiency of fertilizer nitrogen.
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, UPM 43400, Malaysia. kur.hakeem@gmail.com.|Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. kur.hakeem@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Khalid Rehman
authors.initials: KR
authors.lastname: Hakeem
authors.affiliation: Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
authors.forename: Muhammad
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Sabir
authors.affiliation: Botany Department & Centre for Environmental Studies, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey.
authors.forename: Munir
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Ozturk
authors.affiliation: Department of Botany, Gandhi Faiz-E-Aam College, Shahjahanpur, 242001, Uttar Pradesh, India.
authors.forename: Mohd Sayeed
authors.initials: MS
authors.lastname: Akhtar
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, UPM 43400, Malaysia.
authors.forename: Faridah Hanum
authors.initials: FH
authors.lastname: Ibrahim
mesh_terms: D000383:Agriculture; D052918:Environmental Restoration and Remediation; D005308:Fertilizers; D009566:Nitrates / Q000633:toxicity*; D009589:Nitrogen Oxides / Q000633:toxicity*
chemical_list: D005308:Fertilizers; D009566:Nitrates; D009589:Nitrogen Oxides
keywords: Environment; Environmental pollution; Fertilizer use efficiency; Global climate change; Global warming; Glutamine synthase; Methemoglobinemia; N-efficient genotypes; Nitrate assimilation; Nitrate pollution; Nitrate reductase; Nitrate toxicity; Nitrate uptake; Nitrite reductase; Nitrogen emission; Nitrogen metabolism pathway; Nitrogen oxides; Nitrogen use efficiency; Nitrosamines; Nitrous oxide; Ozone depletion; Phytoremediation; Slow-release fertilizers; Transcription factors; Transgenic plants