title: Application and Uses of Electronic Noses for Clinical Diagnosis on Urine Samples: A Review.
abstract: The electronic nose is able to provide useful information through the analysis of the volatile organic compounds in body fluids, such as exhaled breath, urine and blood. This paper focuses on the review of electronic nose studies and applications in the specific field of medical diagnostics based on the analysis of the gaseous headspace of human urine, in order to provide a broad overview of the state of the art and thus enhance future developments in this field. The research in this field is rather recent and still in progress, and there are several aspects that need to be investigated more into depth, not only to develop and improve specific electronic noses for different diseases, but also with the aim to discover and analyse the connections between specific diseases and the body fluids odour. Further research is needed to improve the results obtained up to now; the development of new sensors and data processing methods should lead to greater diagnostic accuracy thus making the electronic nose an effective tool for early detection of different kinds of diseases, ranging from infections to tumours or exposure to toxic agents.
authors.affiliation: Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica "Giulio Natta", piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milan 20133, Italy. laura.capelli@polimi.it.
authors.forename: Laura
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Capelli
authors.affiliation: Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy. gianluigi.taverna@humanitas.it.|Ospedale Humanitas Mater Domini, Via Gerenzano 2, Castellanza, Varese 21053, Italy. gianluigi.taverna@humanitas.it.
authors.forename: Gianluigi
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Taverna
authors.affiliation: Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica "Giulio Natta", piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milan 20133, Italy. alessia1.bellini@mail.polimi.it.
authors.forename: Alessia
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Bellini
authors.affiliation: Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica "Giulio Natta", piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milan 20133, Italy. lidia.eusebio@polimi.it.
authors.forename: Lidia
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Eusebio
authors.affiliation: Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy. niccolo.buffi@hunimed.it.
authors.forename: Niccolò
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Buffi
authors.affiliation: Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy. massimo.lazzeri@humanitas.it.
authors.forename: Massimo
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Lazzeri
authors.affiliation: Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy. giorgio.guazzoni@humanitas.it.
authors.forename: Giorgio
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Guazzoni
authors.affiliation: Ospedale Humanitas Mater Domini, Via Gerenzano 2, Castellanza, Varese 21053, Italy. giorgio.bozzini@HMD.it.
authors.forename: Giorgio
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Bozzini
authors.affiliation: Ospedale Humanitas Mater Domini, Via Gerenzano 2, Castellanza, Varese 21053, Italy. mauro.seveso@humanitas.it.
authors.forename: Mauro
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Seveso
authors.affiliation: Ospedale Humanitas Mater Domini, Via Gerenzano 2, Castellanza, Varese 21053, Italy. alberto.mandressi@auro.it.
authors.forename: Alberto
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Mandressi
authors.affiliation: Italian Ministry of Defense's, Military Veterinary Center, CEMIVET, Via Provinciale Castiglionese, 201, Grosseto 58100, Italy. lorudit@virgilio.it.
authors.forename: Lorenzo
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Tidu
authors.affiliation: Department of Immunology and Inflammation, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy. fabio.grizzi@humanitasreserch.it.
authors.forename: Fabio
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Grizzi
authors.affiliation: Italian Ministry of Defense's, Military Veterinary Center, CEMIVET, Via Provinciale Castiglionese, 201, Grosseto 58100, Italy. francescopaolo.sardella@esercito.difesa.it.
authors.forename: Paolo
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Sardella
authors.affiliation: Italian Ministry of Defense's, Military Veterinary Center, CEMIVET, Via Provinciale Castiglionese, 201, Grosseto 58100, Italy. siegher@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Giuseppe
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Latorre
authors.affiliation: Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy. Rodolfo.hurle@humanitas.it.
authors.forename: Rodolfo
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Hurle
authors.affiliation: Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy. giovanni.lughezzani@humanitas.it.
authors.forename: Giovanni
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Lughezzani
authors.affiliation: Department of Urology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, Milan 20089, Italy. paolo.casale@humanitas.it.
authors.forename: Paolo
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Casale
authors.affiliation: Ospedale Humanitas Mater Domini, Via Gerenzano 2, Castellanza, Varese 21053, Italy. sara.meregali@HMD.it.
authors.forename: Sara
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Meregali
authors.affiliation: Politecnico di Milano, Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica "Giulio Natta", piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milan 20133, Italy. selena.sironi@polimi.it.
authors.forename: Selena
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Sironi
keywords: VOCs; biomarkers; olfaction; prostate cancer; urine analysis