title: How We Experience Being Alone: Age Differences in Affective and Biological Correlates of Momentary Solitude.
abstract: Spending time alone constitutes a ubiquitous part of our everyday lives. As we get older, alone time increases. Less is known, however, about age differences in the experience of spending time alone (momentary solitude).
  
  
  
  We examined time-varying associations between momentary solitude, affect quality, and two hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity markers [salivary cortisol; dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAs)] to better understand the affective and biological correlates of momentary solitude across the adult life span.
  
  
  
  A total of 185 adults aged 20-81 years (mean age = 49 years, 51% female, 74% Caucasian) completed questionnaires on momentary solitude (alone vs. not alone) and current affect on a handheld device, and provided concurrent saliva samples up to seven times a day for 10 consecutive days. Data were analyzed using multilevel models, controlling for the overall amount of time participants spent alone during the study (overall solitude).
  
  
  
  Greater overall solitude was associated with decreased average high arousal positive affect and increased average cortisol and DHEAs levels. Momentary solitude was associated with reduced high arousal positive affect, increased low arousal positive affect, and increased low arousal negative affect. Age by momentary solitude interactions indicate that greater age was associated with increased high arousal positive affect and reduced low arousal negative affect during momentary solitude. Furthermore, momentary solitude was associated with increased cortisol and DHEAs. With greater age, the association between momentary solitude and cortisol weakened.
  
  
  
  Consistent with the negative connotations to loneliness and objective social isolation, greater overall solitude was associated with negative affective and biological correlates. Spending a large overall amount of time alone in old age might thus have negative ramifications for health and well-being. Momentary solitude, in contrast, can be a double-edged sword as evidenced by both positive and negative well-being implications. Importantly, greater age is linked to more favorable affective and biological correlates of momentary solitude. The momentary state of spending time alone is thus an experience that is not necessarily negative and that may improve with aging.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., Canada.
authors.forename: Theresa
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Pauly
authors.forename: Jennifer C
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Lay
authors.forename: Urs M
authors.initials: UM
authors.lastname: Nater
authors.forename: Stacey B
authors.initials: SB
authors.lastname: Scott
authors.forename: Christiane A
authors.initials: CA
authors.lastname: Hoppmann
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000339:Affect / Q000502:physiology*; D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D000375:Aging / Q000502:physiology / Q000523:psychology*; D019314:Dehydroepiandrosterone Sulfate / Q000378:metabolism; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D006854:Hydrocortisone / Q000378:metabolism; D007030:Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System / Q000502:physiology; D008132:Loneliness / Q000523:psychology*; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D010913:Pituitary-Adrenal System / Q000502:physiology; D012463:Saliva / Q000378:metabolism; D013312:Stress, Physiological; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D013997:Time Factors; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D019314:Dehydroepiandrosterone Sulfate; D006854:Hydrocortisone