title: Urbanized White Ibises (Eudocimus albus) as Carriers of Salmonella enterica of Significance to Public Health and Wildlife.
abstract: Worldwide, Salmonella spp. is a significant cause of disease for both humans and wildlife, with wild birds adapted to urban environments having different opportunities for pathogen exposure, infection, and transmission compared to their natural conspecifics. Food provisioning by people may influence these factors, especially when high-density mixed species flocks aggregate. White Ibises (Eudocimus albus), an iconic Everglades species in decline in Florida, are becoming increasingly common in urbanized areas of south Florida where most are hand-fed. We examined the prevalence of Salmonella shedding by ibises to determine the role of landscape characteristics where ibis forage and their behavior, on shedding rates. We also compared Salmonella isolated from ibises to human isolates to better understand non-foodborne human salmonellosis. From 2010-2013, 13% (n = 261) adult/subadult ibises and 35% (n = 72) nestlings sampled were shedding Salmonella. The prevalence of Salmonella shedding by ibises significantly decreased as the percent of Palustrine emergent wetlands and herbaceous grasslands increased, and increased as the proportion of open-developed land types (e.g. parks, lawns, golf courses) increased, suggesting that natural ecosystem land cover types supported birds with a lower prevalence of infection. A high diversity of Salmonella serotypes (n = 24) and strain types (43 PFGE types) were shed by ibises, of which 33% of the serotypes ranked in the top 20 of high significance for people in the years of the study. Importantly, 44% of the Salmonella Pulsed-Field Gel Electrophoresis patterns for ibis isolates (n = 43) matched profiles in the CDC PulseNet USA database. Of these, 20% came from Florida in the same three years we sampled ibis. Importantly, there was a negative relationship between the amount of Palustrine emergent wetland and the number of Salmonella isolates from ibises that matched human cases in the PulseNet database (p = 0.056). Together, our results indicate that ibises are good indicators of salmonellae strains circulating in their environment and they have both the potential and opportunity to transmit salmonellae to people. Finally, they may act as salmonellae carriers to natural environments where other more highly-susceptible groups (nestlings) may be detrimentally affected.
authors: Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America.|Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America.
authors: Sonia M
authors: SM
authors: Hernandez
authors: Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America.
authors: Catharine N
authors: CN
authors: Welch
authors: Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Department of Zoology, Miami University, Columbia, Ohio, United States of America.
authors: Valerie E
authors: VE
authors: Peters
authors: Department of Environmental Health Science, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America.
authors: Erin K
authors: EK
authors: Lipp
authors: Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America.
authors: Shannon
authors: S
authors: Curry
authors: Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America.|Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America.
authors: Michael J
authors: MJ
authors: Yabsley
authors: Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America.
authors: Susan
authors: S
authors: Sanchez
authors: Department of Geography, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America.
authors: Andrea
authors: A
authors: Presotto
authors: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America.
authors: Peter
authors: P
authors: Gerner-Smidt
authors: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America.
authors: Kelley B
authors: KB
authors: Hise
authors: Lion Country Safari Park, Loxahatchee, Florida, United States of America.
authors: Elizabeth
authors: E
authors: Hammond
authors: Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America.
authors: Whitney M
authors: WM
authors: Kistler
authors: Department of Geography, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America.
authors: Marguerite
authors: M
authors: Madden
authors: Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America.
authors: April L
authors: AL
authors: Conway
authors: Poultry Diagnostic and Research Center, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America.
authors: Tiffany
authors: T
authors: Kwan
authors: Poultry Diagnostic and Research Center, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America.
authors: John J
authors: JJ
authors: Maurer
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000835:Animals, Wild; D001522:Behavior, Animal; D001717:Birds / Q000382:microbiology* / Q000502:physiology; D005243:Feces / Q000382:microbiology; D011634:Public Health; D019779:Salmonella enterica / Q000302:isolation & purification*