title: The influence of hydrous ferric oxide, earthworms, and a hypertolerant plant on arsenic and iron bioavailability, fate, and transport in soils.
abstract: Historic applications of lead arsenate pesticides and smelting activities have resulted in elevated concentrations of arsenic in Washington State soils. For example, old orchard topsoils in Washington have concentrations reaching upwards of 350 mg As/kg soil with an estimated 187,590 acres of arsenic contamination from pesticide application alone. Iron oxides have been indicated as a key factor in modulating the fate and transport of arsenic in the soil environment. We employed a factorial design to investigate the role of a specific iron oxide, hydrous ferric oxide (HFO), and terrestrial organisms on the mobility, bioavailability, and fate of arsenic and iron in locally collected soils. Earthworms in soils amended with both arsenic and HFO had 47.2 % lower arsenic tissue concentrations compared to those in soils only amended with arsenic. Similarly, arsenic leachate concentrations and plant tissue concentrations were lower when HFO was present, although this was with a reduced magnitude and was not consistently significant. A lack of significance of HFO in three of the linear models for leachate and plant bioavailability, however, indicates that the role of HFO in arsenic mobility, bioavailability, and fate is more complicated than can be explained by the simple addition or not of HFO. For example, our analyses showed that earthworms decreased pH and increased bioavailability for both arsenic and iron as demonstrated by increases in leachate and plant tissue concentrations. The mechanisms for this could include a biotransformation of earthworm-ingested arsenic combined with an earthworm-induced change in pH. We also found that arsenic amendments increased the mobility and bioavailability of iron, evidenced by increased iron concentrations in earthworms, plants, and leachate. A mechanistic explanation for this change in bioavailability is not readily apparent but does support a need for more work on bioavailability when mixtures are present. From these results, it is clear that a combination of biotic and abiotic factors influences metal/metalloid fate and transport in soils, with earthworms being one of the most important factors in our work. Study designs such as the factorial analysis can help to address the role each factor plays while efficiently generating new hypotheses and areas of inquiry; this approach can also bridge knowledge generated through reductionist and holistic approaches to complex environmental problems.
authors: Huxley College of the Environment, Department of Environmental Sciences, Western Washington University, 516 High St., Bellingham, WA, 98225, USA.
authors: Benjamin C
authors: BC
authors: Maki
authors: Huxley College of the Environment, Department of Environmental Sciences, Western Washington University, 516 High St., Bellingham, WA, 98225, USA.
authors: Kathryn R
authors: KR
authors: Hodges
authors: Huxley College of the Environment, Department of Environmental Sciences, Western Washington University, 516 High St., Bellingham, WA, 98225, USA.
authors: Scott C
authors: SC
authors: Ford
authors: Huxley College of the Environment, Department of Environmental Sciences, Western Washington University, 516 High St., Bellingham, WA, 98225, USA. Ruth.Sofield@wwu.edu.
authors: Ruth M
authors: RM
authors: Sofield
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001151:Arsenic / Q000032:analysis / Q000378:metabolism*; D001682:Biological Availability; D005290:Ferric Compounds / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000378:metabolism*; D007501:Iron / Q000378:metabolism*; D009835:Oligochaeta / Q000378:metabolism*; D010575:Pesticides / Q000378:metabolism; D012987:Soil / Q000737:chemistry*; D012989:Soil Pollutants / Q000378:metabolism*; D014861:Washington
chemical_list: D005290:Ferric Compounds; D010575:Pesticides; D012987:Soil; D012989:Soil Pollutants; C000499:ferric oxide; C021024:ferric hydroxide; D007501:Iron; D001151:Arsenic
keywords: Arsenic; Bioavailability; Earthworms; Factorial design; Hydrous ferric oxide; Iron; Sequential extraction; pH