title: The Origins of Cognitive Deficits in Victimized Children: Implications for Neuroscientists and Clinicians.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Individuals reporting a history of childhood violence victimization have impaired brain function. However, the clinical significance, reproducibility, and causality of these findings are disputed. The authors used data from two large cohort studies to address these research questions directly.
  
  
  METHODS
  The authors tested the association between prospectively collected measures of childhood violence victimization and cognitive functions in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood among 2,232 members of the U.K. E-Risk Study and 1,037 members of the New Zealand Dunedin Study who were followed up from birth until ages 18 and 38 years, respectively. Multiple measures of victimization and cognition were used, and comparisons were made of cognitive scores for twins discordant for victimization.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Individuals exposed to childhood victimization had pervasive impairments in clinically relevant cognitive functions, including general intelligence, executive function, processing speed, memory, perceptual reasoning, and verbal comprehension in adolescence and adulthood. However, the observed cognitive deficits in victimized individuals were largely explained by cognitive deficits that predated childhood victimization and by confounding genetic and environmental risks.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Findings from two population-representative birth cohorts totaling more than 3,000 individuals and born 20 years and 20,000 km apart suggest that the association between childhood violence victimization and later cognition is largely noncausal, in contrast to conventional interpretations. These findings support the adoption of a more circumspect approach to causal inference in the neuroscience of stress. Clinically, cognitive deficits should be conceptualized as individual risk factors for victimization as well as potential complicating features during treatment.
authors: From the MRC Social, Genetic, and Developmental Psychiatry Centre and the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, De Crespigny Park, London; the National and Specialist Clinic for Child Traumatic Stress and Anxiety Disorders, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London; the Department of Psychology and Neuroscience and the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University, Durham, N.C.; and the Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
authors: Andrea
authors: A
authors: Danese
authors: From the MRC Social, Genetic, and Developmental Psychiatry Centre and the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, De Crespigny Park, London; the National and Specialist Clinic for Child Traumatic Stress and Anxiety Disorders, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London; the Department of Psychology and Neuroscience and the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University, Durham, N.C.; and the Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
authors: Terrie E
authors: TE
authors: Moffitt
authors: From the MRC Social, Genetic, and Developmental Psychiatry Centre and the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, De Crespigny Park, London; the National and Specialist Clinic for Child Traumatic Stress and Anxiety Disorders, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London; the Department of Psychology and Neuroscience and the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University, Durham, N.C.; and the Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
authors: Louise
authors: L
authors: Arseneault
authors: From the MRC Social, Genetic, and Developmental Psychiatry Centre and the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, De Crespigny Park, London; the National and Specialist Clinic for Child Traumatic Stress and Anxiety Disorders, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London; the Department of Psychology and Neuroscience and the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University, Durham, N.C.; and the Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
authors: Ben A
authors: BA
authors: Bleiberg
authors: From the MRC Social, Genetic, and Developmental Psychiatry Centre and the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, De Crespigny Park, London; the National and Specialist Clinic for Child Traumatic Stress and Anxiety Disorders, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London; the Department of Psychology and Neuroscience and the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University, Durham, N.C.; and the Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
authors: Perry B
authors: PB
authors: Dinardo
authors: From the MRC Social, Genetic, and Developmental Psychiatry Centre and the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, De Crespigny Park, London; the National and Specialist Clinic for Child Traumatic Stress and Anxiety Disorders, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London; the Department of Psychology and Neuroscience and the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University, Durham, N.C.; and the Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
authors: Stephanie B
authors: SB
authors: Gandelman
authors: From the MRC Social, Genetic, and Developmental Psychiatry Centre and the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, De Crespigny Park, London; the National and Specialist Clinic for Child Traumatic Stress and Anxiety Disorders, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London; the Department of Psychology and Neuroscience and the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University, Durham, N.C.; and the Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
authors: Renate
authors: R
authors: Houts
authors: From the MRC Social, Genetic, and Developmental Psychiatry Centre and the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, De Crespigny Park, London; the National and Specialist Clinic for Child Traumatic Stress and Anxiety Disorders, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London; the Department of Psychology and Neuroscience and the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University, Durham, N.C.; and the Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
authors: Antony
authors: A
authors: Ambler
authors: From the MRC Social, Genetic, and Developmental Psychiatry Centre and the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, De Crespigny Park, London; the National and Specialist Clinic for Child Traumatic Stress and Anxiety Disorders, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London; the Department of Psychology and Neuroscience and the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University, Durham, N.C.; and the Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
authors: Helen L
authors: HL
authors: Fisher
authors: From the MRC Social, Genetic, and Developmental Psychiatry Centre and the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, De Crespigny Park, London; the National and Specialist Clinic for Child Traumatic Stress and Anxiety Disorders, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London; the Department of Psychology and Neuroscience and the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University, Durham, N.C.; and the Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
authors: Richie
authors: R
authors: Poulton
authors: From the MRC Social, Genetic, and Developmental Psychiatry Centre and the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Neuroscience, King's College London, De Crespigny Park, London; the National and Specialist Clinic for Child Traumatic Stress and Anxiety Disorders, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust, London; the Department of Psychology and Neuroscience and the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University, Durham, N.C.; and the Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
authors: Avshalom
authors: A
authors: Caspi
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D015984:Causality; D002649:Child Abuse / Q000523:psychology* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D002675:Child, Preschool; D060825:Cognitive Dysfunction / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000235:genetics / Q000523:psychology*; D015331:Cohort Studies; D015986:Confounding Factors, Epidemiologic; D019548:Crime Victims / Q000523:psychology* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D004200:Diseases in Twins / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000235:genetics / Q000523:psychology*; D005260:Female; D059647:Gene-Environment Interaction; D006801:Humans; D007360:Intelligence / Q000235:genetics; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D009483:Neuropsychological Tests / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D009520:New Zealand; D010552:Personality Assessment / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D015995:Prevalence; D011594:Psychometrics; D012307:Risk Factors; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D006113:United Kingdom; D014754:Violence / Q000523:psychology* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D055815:Young Adult
keywords: Child Maltreatment; Cognition; Executive Function; IQ; Stress; Victimization